GIFT  OF 


4.    -V 


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X     /IN     X 

NL  .V          \ 


Pax  et  Strenuitas 


Copyright  1911 

by 

GEORGE  ADAM,   M.   D. 

Registered  at  Stationer's  Hall,  London,  England 
Foreign  Rights  Reserved 


Press  of 

FRANKLIN    LINOTYPING    CO. 
San    Francisco 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM 

AN    ASTRONOMICAL    UNIT 


A  Work  of  Deduction  Based  on  a  Fundamental 
Hypothesis 


GEORGE     ADAM,   M.    D. 
Author  of 

'Electricity,     the    Chemistry    of    Ether."      "Concepts    of    Electric 
Phenomena  of  Planetary  Systems."  "From  Ether  to  the  Physio- 
logic Unit."    "The  Physiologic  Unit."    "Theoretical  Consid- 
eration of  X-Ray  Energy."    "Radioactivity."  "Earth- 
quakes,   an   Astronomical    Question."      "Nation- 
alization   of    the    Practice    of    Medicine." 
"Medicinal  Vibration."  "Cataphoresis." 
"Origin  and  Character  of  X-Rays." 
"Hysteria,"  Etc.,  Etc. 


JOHN   J.    NEWBEGIN, 

PUBLISHER 

315  Sutter  Street,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 


•      .:..:."••."••*  DEDICATED 

TO 
THE     MEMORY 

OF 
THE     GREAT     NEWTON 

WHO,     FROM    AN    INTUITIONAL    PERCEPTION     OF 
TRUTH,    STEADFASTLY    ADHERED    TO    THE    CORPUSCULAR 
THEORY     OF     LIGHT. 

NOTHING    EXISTS,    EITHER    ACTUALLY    OR    POTENTIALLY, 

BUT   WHAT    A   MIND   IS    EVOLVED    TO    CONCEIVE 

AND     TO     COMPREHEND. 


GIFT 


PREFACE. 

This  work  is  an  extension  of  former  publications — 
"Concepts  of  Electric  Phenomena  of  Planetary  Sys- 
tems," and  "Electricity  the  Chemistry  of  Ether." 
The  latter,  a  book  of  600  pages,  was  destroyed  by  the 
San  Francisco  fire  of  1906;  and  the  former,  a  smaller 
book,  was  partially  destroyed  by  the  same  fire.  The 
larger  work  was  based  on  the  interpretation  of  facts 
of  Electricity,  Chemistry,  Physics  and  Physiology,  as 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Hypothesis;  the 
smaller  was  the  application  of  the  hypothesis  to  As- 
tronomical facts.  After  the  California  earthquake  of 
1906  there  was  issued,  in  pamphlet  form,  ' '  Earthquakes, 
an  Astronomical  Question."  This,  with  slight  altera- 
tion, is  reproduced  in  the  present  publication. 

It  was  intended  to  publish  the  astronomical  deduc- 
tions as  the  fourth  part  of  a  larger  volume,  the  first 
part  of  which  is  an  elaboration  of  the  immediate  deduc- 
tions from  the  general  hypothesis,  which  were  formu- 
lated as  a  platform  of  secondary  principles,  from  which 
to  draw  further  deductions.  The  second  part  of  the 
larger  work  is  devoted  to  Heat  and  Light;  and  the 
third  part  to  Electricity,  Roentgen  Rays,  Photo-electric 
Phenomena,  etc.  Hence  it  is  clear  that  in  the  present 
small  volume  no  large  amount  of  space  can  be  devoted 
either  to  the  hypothesis  or  to  the  direct  deductions  from 
the  hypothesis.  For  instance  the  chapter  dealing  with 
the  physical  character  of  ether  is  simply  a  synopsis  of 
the  original;  and  the  same  characterization  applies  to 
that  on  Heat  and  Light.  The  publication  of  the  larger 
work,  now  in  manuscript,  will  follow. 


464046 


PREFACE. 

The  following  works  have  chiefly  supplied  the  facts 
essential  to  the  deductions  recorded:  General  Astron- 
omy, by  Young;  The  Evolution  of  Worlds,  by  Lowell; 
How  to  Know  the  Starry  Heavens,  by  Edward  Irv- 
ing; Physical  Optics,  by  Wood;  and  Geology,  by  Le 
Conte. 

Through  the  courtesies  of  Dorothea  Isaac-Roberts,  I 
have  been  much  encouraged  in  the  pursuit  of  my  work 
and  have  had  the  privilege  of  copying  photographs  by 
the  late  Dr.  Roberts. 

I  am  greatly  indebted  to  Alice  Marie  O'Neill  for 
drawings  illustrating  my  conceptions  of  the  Solar  Sys- 
tem. 

To  my  wife,  Dr.  Alice  Douglas  Adam,  I  have  to 
express  my  very  great  obligation  for  encouragement 
and  material  assistance  rendered  in  the  preparation  of 
this  work. 

San  Francisco,  California,  May,  1915. 


CONTENTS. 

Chapter.  Page. 

Introduction:      Hypothesis   and   Deductions 6 

I.  A  Creation.  Electric  Matter.  Matter  and  Space. 
Matter  and  Motion.  Anode  and  Cathode  Par- 
ticles   1 3 

Physical  Character  of  the  Ether 23 

Evolution  of  a  Solar  System.     A  Cosmic  Unit....  26 

II.      The  Reaction  of  the  Forces  of  Distant  Bodies....  30 

III.  The  Solar  System.      The  Sun 40 

IV.  The  Great  Cycle 54 

Energy  of  the  Solar  System 56 

Temperature  62 

Tidal  and  Other  Motions 64 

V.      Earthquakes,  Volcanoes  and  Mountains.     Chain- 
ing an  Earthquake.     Shape  of  the  Earth 69 

VI.      Cyclic   Periods 87 

Period  of   Cell   Life— Water.      The   Cell-Mole- 
cule   97 

VII.      The  Evolutionary  Period  of  Mars 106 

VIII.      The  Planets 113 

IX.      Comets     128 

X.      Orbit  of  the  Earth 136 

Velocities  of  Satellites 155 

XL     The    Moon 149 

XII.     Spiral     Nebulae 160 

Multiple    Stars 161 

The  Universe 1 65 

Cosmic    Reflections 1 67 

XIII.  Illustrations    1 75 

XIV.  Light  and  Heat...                                                     .  201 


INTRODUCTION. 

Since  1897  the  author  has  labored  in  developing  an 
hypothesis  which  he  considers  elementary  to  the  laws 
of  force.  An  intuitional  appreciation  of  a  truth  at  the 
beginning  became  a  firm  conviction  by  the  interpretation 
of  facts  collated  from  many  channels.  The  hypothesis 
was  primarily  stated  as  follows:  "Electricity  is  the 
Chemistry  of  the  Ether."  The  conception  is  more  fully 
expressed  in  the  following  formulae:  The  Ether  is  the 
Simplest  form  of  Matter,  is  Molecular,  and  Electricity, 
in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  term,  is  its  Chemistry. 
This  is  a  work  of  deduction  based  upon  the  hypothesis. 

The  term  Electricity  is  here  used  as  being  analogous 
to  the  term  Chemistry;  or  electricity  may  be  considered 
a  branch  of  chemistry  as  dealing  with  the  chemical  an- 
alysis and  chemical  synthesis  of  Ether  Matter.  More 
fully  and  conversely  the  hypothesis  may  be  stated  thus : 
That  the  matter  of  the  Universe  is  fundamentally  com- 
posed of  two  kinds,  one  the  positive,  cation,  or  concen- 
trative;  the  other  the  negative,  anion,  or  diffusive;  that 
these  exist  in  their  pure  or  uncombined  state  respective- 
ly as  positive  and  negative  electric  matter  (electricity)  ; 
and  that  positive  and  negative  electric  matter  chemically 
combine  and  mutually  neutralize,  unit  quantity  with 
unit  quantity,  as  the  simplest  physical  form  of  matter, 
the  Ether.  The  ether  molecule  is  thus  composed  of  two 
atoms,  one  purely  positive  and  one  purely  negative 
matter,  which  under  specific  conditions  of  strain  dis- 
sociate into  electric  matter.  In  describing  an  ideal  ele- 
mentary matter  (Chapter  I)  the  concordant  conditions 
of  differentiated  matter  are  fully  considered. 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

It  appears  that  much,  concern  has  been  bestowed  on 
inductive  methods  of  reasoning,  the  premises  of  which 
have  had  too  limited  fields,  and  hence  failures  to  reach 
general  principles  have  followed.  The  investigation  of 
particular  phenomena  leads  to  unsafe  conclusions,  ex- 
cept it  embraces  a  sphere  of  action  of  independent 
unity.  According  to  the  deductions  of  this  work,  only 
one  such  sphere  is  available — the  solar  system  as  a 
cosmic  unit. 

A  phenomenon  or  group  of  phenomena  pertaining  to 
the  terrestrial  sphere  cannot  be  fully  understood  unless 
the  relation  of  the  Earth  to  the  forces  of  the  solar 
system  is  fully  considered.  The  relation  of  local  phe- 
nomena to  general  forces  is  well  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  the  organic  cell  at  present  is  not  developed,  and 
could  not  be  maintained,  in  any  part  of  our  star-space 
excepting  an  area  approximately  bounded  by  the  orbits 
of  Venus  and  Mars. 

It  is  also  apparent  that  deduction  from  an  hypothesis 
which  is  not  fundamental  may  be  misleading.  On  the 
other  hand  an  hypothetical  truth  fundamental  to  the 
physical  facts  or  phenomena  of  a  cosmic  unit,  and  hence 
to  the  universe,  must  be  in  the  position  of  an  arbiter  of 
all  conclusions,  and  must  place  induction  in  the  position 
of  its  hand-maid. 

Scientists  have  been  yearning  for  a  key  to  a  grand 
generalization.  They  have  expected  it  to  be  revealed  by 
a  group  of  facts  uncovered  by  experimentation,  whereas 
its  formula  must  necessarily  spring  into  being  as  a 
simple  creation  of  intuitional  thought  or  imaginative 
effort,  for  it  must  deal  with  entities  beyond  observ- 
ational research.  Hence  the  elaboration  of  the  hypothe- 
sis must  depend  on  the  power  to  draw  a  mental  picture 
of  conditions  beyond  perceptive  investigation,  based  on 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

the  interpretation  of  all  relative  facts,  or  on  the  con- 
struction of  analogies  with  observed  conditions.  A 
general  hypothesis  will  demand  that  all  elementary  facts 
be  made  witnesses  to  its  correctness;  and  that  by  virtue 
of  its  authority  all  particular  theories  must  before 
acceptance  receive  certificates  of  good  standing.  All 
other  theories  will  thus  be  transformed  into  deductions. 
The  method  employed  has  been  to  draw  immediate 
conclusions  from  the  hypothesis  on  which  to  build  a 
platform  of  secondary  principles.  In  general  the  con- 
clusions are  therefore  interpretations  of  relative  facts 
on  the  basis  of  those  principles.  With  regard  to  this 
work  it  is  simply  claimed  that  there  has  been  priorly 
formulated  a  basic  conception  capable  of  generalization. 
The  deductions  are  subject  to  correction  without  in- 
validating this  claim.  There  has  been  constant  "  posses- 
sion ' '  and  constant  ' '  work. ' '  A  theory  recorded  without 
development  work  is  as  the  squatting  of  land  whose 
value  increases  through  extraneous  efforts.  Such 
guesses  are  numerous,  and  sometimes  brilliant,  but 
proprietorship  should  only  be  awarded  to  those  who 
expend  energy  and  time  in  proving  the  worth  of  their 
conceptions.  To  the  great  army  of  workers  engaged  in 
uncovering  facts  too  much  credit  cannot  be  accorded, 
for  facts  are  the  pillars  on  which  a  generalization  must 
rest. 

In  a  work  of  this  size  many  issues  appear  which 
cannot  be  followed.  For  instance  it  may  be  denied  that 
positive  electricity  is  concentrative.  This  question  has 
been  considered  and  no  relative  fact  has  been  uncovered 
but  which  is  fully  explainable  on  the  basis  of  the 
hypothesis. 

Deductions  give  no  support  to  the  kinetic  theory  of 
matter  as  presently  accepted.  This  theory  is  foun- 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

dationless,  except  as  applied  to  predominating  negative 
or  anion  conditions.  Instead  deduction  uncovers  a 
molecular  vibration  consisting  of  two  phases,  polar- 
ization and  depolarization,  as  indicated  in  the  frontis- 
piece, and  finds  this  vibration  elementary  to  allied 
phenomena  as  crystallization,  magnetization,  muscular- 
ization,  neuralization,  cerebration,  and  to  the  initiatory 
energy  of  light.  More  important  as  related  to  the  sub- 
ject matter  of  this  volume  is  the  definition  of  heat, 
which  is  in  the  nature  of  a  radiation-pressure  and  some- 
what analogous  to  blood  pressure.  It  may  be  likened  to 
the  pressure  of  water  at  the  outlet  of  a  lake  at  the  op- 
posite side  of  which  matter  is  added.  Full  discussion  of 
those  subjects  is  made  elsewhere. 

Deductions  from  this  hypothesis  lead  to  some  remark- 
able conclusions,  a  few  of  which  are  as  follow: 

The  Ether  is  the  ultimate  equilibration  of  forces 
under  the  law  that  all  forces  react  with  an  intensity 
inverse  as  the  square  of  distance. 

The  cathode  particle  is  indivisible  by  existing  forces. 

An  anode  particle  of  the  exact  size  of  the  cathode 
particle  is  an  impossibility  under  like  pressure. 

The  reaction  between  positive  and  negative  forces,  as 
a  strain  to  neutralize  at  minimum  distance,  is  the  great 
diffusive  agency  of  positive  matter. 

Positive  and  negative  matter  in  ether  molecules,  in 
ponderable  molecules,  in  planetary  bodies,  and  in  solar 
systems,  tend  to  the  same  relative  arrangement. 

The  Sun  is  a  growing  body  and  is  the  dominating 
causal  factor  in  the  evolutionary  changes  of  the  planets. 

An  astonishing  conception  of  kinetic  energy  is 
evolved:  There  ensues  from  the  fundamental  con- 
ditions of  matter  as  delineated  a  perpetual  motion  with- 
in each  Cosmic  Unit,  which  is  commensurate  with  an 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

everlastingly  unequilibrated  and  unequilibratable  por- 
tion of  force — each  cosmic  unit  intrinsically  possesses  an 
all-sufficiency  for  its  own  perpetual  cyclic  evolvement. 

There  is  evolved  an  important  concept  of  the  quan- 
titative relation  of  all  matter  and  all  force  to  all  space. 

Astronomy  is  the  basic  science :  We  cannot  fully  un- 
derstand the  properties  and  activities  of  the  organic  cell 
unless  the  essential  conditions  of  its  production,  main- 
tenance and  disappearance  within  the  solar  system  are 
comprehended. 

The  evolutionary  stages  of  planets  are  indicated  in  a 
measure  by  the  geological  periods  of  the  Earth. 

The  evolutionary  as  well  as  the  time  ages  of  planets 
are  in  direct  proportion  to  their  proximity  to  the  Sun, 
their  dimensions  in  this  relation  being  of  slight  im- 
portance. 

Sun-ward  streams  of  energy  must  emanate  from  the 
poles  of  the  planets,  probably  manifesting  as  aurora. 

The  notation  is  made  with  extreme  gratification  that 
deductions  from  this  hypothesis  in  the  main  accord  with 
the  corpuscular  theory  of  light.  We  find  that  light  is 
corpuscular  in  every  crisis  of  its  course,  although  inci- 
dently  wave-motion  characterizes  the  propagation  of  the 
corpuscle. 

Wireless  telegraphy  is  easily  conceived  when  the  prop- 
erties of  the  Ether  are  understood. 


CHAPTER  I. 

A  Creation. 

"In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heavens  and  the 
earth."  Assuming  a  creation  we  proceed  to  formulate 
a  conception  of  the  essential  material  to  be  created  and 
the  mode  of  procedure.  The  universe  being  infinite  and 
our  minds  finite  it  is  necessary  that  we  deal  with  a 
limited  sphere  of  action,  which  must  have  the  quali- 
fication of  a  celestial  or  spacial  unit.  Hence  we  will 
assume  that  the  Creator  first  plots  the  Infinite  or  Cosmic 
Space.  In  the  allotment  the  portion  awarded  the  Solar 
System  is  demarcated  by  a  line  midway  between  it  and 
adjoining  systems.  We  will  designate  this  the  star- 
space  of  the  Solar  System.  Based  upon  a  prescience  as 
to  the  results  the  Creator  estimates  the  quantity  of 
material  requisite  for  the  cosmic  unit.  This  estimate  is 
based  on  the  essential  and  specific  quantitative  relation 
of  all  matter  and  all  force  to  all  space.  He  places 
within  the  unit  plot  equal  and  determinate  quantities 
of  positive  and  negative  electric  matter  (electricity) ; 
He  implants  in  the  positive  electric  matter,  as  an  in- 
herent property,  the  principle  concentrativeness;  in  the 
negative  electric  matter,  as  an  inherent  property,  the 
principle  diffusibility  ;  and  also  imparts  to  both  a  strain 
to  mutually  neutralize  at  minimum  distance  and  by 
maximum  contact.  Furthermore  He  implants  in  matter 
the  property  of  transductivity*  whereby  the  concen- 

*  Obviously  this  property  differs  from  those  pertain- 
ing to  light  transmission  and  electric  conduction  which 
are  neither  fundamental  nor  general.  It  is,  however, 


14  ' :  t .  c  t  /*\  ^ tC          A  CREATION. 

trative  and  diffusive  forces  are  inductively  passed  to 
points  of  mutual  neutralization.  The  Creator,  then 
considering  His  physical  work  finished,  stands  aside. 
The  electricity — the  forces  as  indicated — does  the  rest. 

If  we  consider  the  ideal  masses  as  ponderable  or 
mixed  matter  then  a  similar  evolvement  of  a  sun  and 
planets  would  obtain,  the  essentials  being  that  positive 
and  negative  matter  be  equally  represented,  and  quan- 
titatively conforming  to  the  relation  of  all  matter  and 
all  force  to  all  space.  Matter  having  the  properties 
assigned,  in  any  physical  form  or  forms,  injected  pro- 
miscuously into  a  star-space  would  evolve  by  its  own 
forces  into  a  cycle  of  energy  of  which  a  sun  and  planets 
would  constitute  a  phase.  It  is  preferable  that  the  ideal 
masses  be  unmixed,  simple,  or  purely  elementary,  that 
is  to  say  electric  matter. 

We  will  suppose  that  the  two  masses  of  electric 
matter  are  placed  apart  many  millions  of  miles,  the 
space  separating  them  being  a  vacuum  (not  even  ether 
being  present).  How  would  they  act?  The  positive 
mass  would  draw  itself  into  a  complete  sphere,  each 
constituent  portion  attracting  all  adjoining  portions. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  negative  mass  would  attenuate 
into  an  extreme  state  of  diffusibility,  each  constituent 
portion  repelling  all  adjoining  portions.  The  positive 
matter  would  concentrate  into  a  motionless  mass.  The 
negative  matter  would  diffuse  into  a  mass  of  vibrating 
units,  each  particle  repelling  adjoining  particles  until 
contact  is  broken,  when  it  would  be  repelled  by  proxi- 
mate particles.  By  intrinsic  force  negative  matter  would 

the  same  in  principle  as  electric  induction.  In  this  re- 
spect electricity  differentiates  as  an  intensive  force  and 
may  rupture  the  medium. 


ELECTRIC  MATTER.  15 

infinitely  divide  but  would  reach  an  equilibrium  as 
regards  space.  It  is  evident  that  the  action  of  the 
negative  electric  matter  would  bring  it  in  contact  with 
the  mass  of  the  positive,  with  the  result  that  neutral- 
ization would  occur. 

As  the  positive  and  the  negative  electric  matter  seek 
neutralization  at  minimum  distance  and  by  maximum 
contact,  it  will  be  apparent  that  the  mixed  masses  will 
divide  and  redivide  until  each  minimum  quantity  of 
positive  electric  matter  is  in  contact  with  an  equal  quan-. 
tity  of  negative  electric  matter.  Further,  as  the  prop- 
erties of  positive  electric  matter  are  concentrative  and 
those  of  negative  are  diffusive,  the  minimum  quantity 
of  the  positive  will  assume  a  spherical  form  and  will  be- 
come central  to  a  film  of  the  negative  which  will  be  cir- 
cumferential. This  form  more  than  any  other  satisfies 
the  strain  to  neutralize  by  maximum  contact,  and  at 
minimum  distance.  Thus  a  molecular  substance  is 
formed  which  fills  space  to  the  extent  of  globular 
capacity  and  whose  molecular  dimensions  bear  the  im- 
press of  the  relation  of  all  matter  and  all  force  to  all 
space.  This  substance  we  call  the  Ether.  Fig.  1  in- 
dicates the  form  of  ether  molecules. 

Let  us  consider  an  ideal  condition  of  the  ether  with- 
out pressure  whose  molecules  are  spherical  without  dis- 
tortion, and  as  far  as  possible  in  equilibrium,  occupying 
space  to  the  extent  of  its  spherical  entities.  Under  this 
condition  there  is  no  attraction  between  positive  atoms 
nor  repulsion  between  negative  atoms.  Within  the 
molecular  quantity  a  complete  neutralization  obtains 
under  the  law  of  distance.  There  still  remains  the 
strain  on  the  part  of  positive  and  negative  matter  to 
neutralize  by  greater  contact  and  at  less  distance,  and 
the  material  of  the  molecules  strains  to  a  more  tenuous 


16  MATTER  AND  SPACE. 

division.  The  strain  to  subdivide  constitutes  the  energy 
of  the  ideal  condition,  and  the  subdivision  would  occur 
indefinitely  unless  the  strain  is  equilibrated  by  pressure 
or  by  other  force. 

MATTER  AND  SPACE. 

Now  the  evidence  of  the  phenomena  of  partial  vacua 
sustain  the  conception  that  the  relation  of  all  matter  to 
all  space  is  such  that  matter  under  extreme  tenuity  is 
under  a  pressure  which  is  or  approximates  the  minimum 
pressure  of  the  universe.  Hence  the  relation  of  all 
matter  and  all  force  to  all  space  is  not  the  relation  in 
the  above  ideal  condition,  but  a  relation  which  gives 
this  minimum  pressure  in  a  maximum  tenuity  as  in 
ether  matter,  and  a  certain  maximum  pressure  coinci- 
dent with  a  maximum  condensation  as  reached  in  the 
ponderable  state.  That  is  to  say  there  is  more  matter 
in  a  star  space  than  a  universal  ether  matter,  as  in  the 
above  ideal  condition,  would  afford.  Therefore,  we  must 
conceive  that  a  universal  ether  without  ponderable 
matter,  but  capable  of  evolving  ponderable  conditions, 
would  be  an  ether  under  pressure  by  virtue  of  its 
relationship  to  space,  and  by  virtue  of  its  molecular 
globular  form.  Such  a  pressure  would  not  necessarily 
obliterate  the  intermolecular  spaces  of  ether  matter,  but 
simply  distort  the  molecular  form.  This  ether  matter 
would  have,  as  already  indicated,  potential  forces  as 
follow:  (1)  Attraction  between  adjacent  positive  units; 
(2)  repulsion  between  adjacent  negative  units;  and  (3) 
a  strain  to  neutralize  at  minimum  distance  and  with 
maximum  contact  between  adjacent  positive  and  nega- 
tive units.  Repulsion  between  negatives  would  be 
balanced  by  the  pressure  under  the  relation  of  matter 
to  space.  The  neutralizing  strain  would  be  balanced  by 


MATTER  AND  SPACE.  17 

the  pressure  supported  by  the  concentrativeness  of 
positive  matter.  The  neutralizing  strain  is  a  diffusive 
agency  but  would  reach  its  maximum  effect  when  the 
circumferential  negative  film  becomes  so  attenuated  as 
to  allow  contact  between  two  positive  atoms  in  vicinity 
and  under  pressure.  Under  such  conditions  synthetic 
reactions  occur  between  positive  atoms  thus  initiating 
the  first  step  towards  mass  formation.  Attraction  be- 
tween positive  units  in  a  universal  ether  under  pressure 
will  furnish  a  kinetic  force. 

The  quantitative  relation  of  matter  to  space  is  of 
equal  importance  to  the  differential  character  of  the 
elementary  properties  of  matter.  The  reactions  of  force 
are  modified  by  the  modification  of  such  relation.  We 
may  conceive  of  an  impenetrable  inert  matter  filling 
space,  without  interstices,  an  addition  to  this  relative 
quantity,  even  under  pressure,  being  impossible.  As 
according  to  the  author's  conceptions  and  deductions 
intermolecular  empty  spaces  exist  in  ether  matter  (the 
only  empty  spaces  in  the  universe),  he  concludes  that 
the  quantitative  relation  of  matter  to  space  is  not  the 
relation  of  an  inert  matter  as  above  conceived,  but  that 
of  a  less  relative  quantity — a  quantity  which  allows 
ether  molecules  to  assume  the  globular  form  by  virtue 
of  their  intrinsic  forces,  although  in  a  degree  distorted 
by  the  pressure  resulting  from  such  spacial  relations, 
nevertheless  admitting  of  empty  interspaces. 

Thus  the  quantity  of  matter  within  a  star-space  or 
celestial  unit-space  must  have  a  specific  relation  to  the 
extent  of  the  space,  and  this  relation  must  be  infinitely 
uniform,  varying  only  as  regards  fractions  of  the  unit 
— the  minimum  pressure  of  the  matter  of  a  star-space 
is  the  infinite  minimum.  Pertinent  to  this  it  will  be 
observed  that  two  of  the  three  basic  properties  of 


18  MATTER  AND  MOTION. 

matter  are  diffusive  in  character,  hence  matter  diffuses 
until  the  property  of  concentrativeness  is  supported  (or 
diffusion  is  arrested)  by  pressure  dependent  on  its 
spacial  relation.  The  quantitative  relation  of  matter  to 
space  is  a  factor  in  determining  the  quantity  of  solid 
matter  in  the  solar  system.  It  must,  however,  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  quantity  of  matter  within  a  star- 
space  of  constant  dimensions  might  vary  within  certain 
limitations,  and  yet  matter  by  its  properties  would  so 
adjust  itself  as  to  produce  the  phenomena  of  a  solar 
system,  simply  by  altering  the  quantitative  relation 
between  ponderable  and  ether  matter,  always  remember- 
ing that  such  relation  must  indicate  a  universal  re- 
lation. 

MATTER  AND   MOTION. 

Here  we  wish  to  emphasize,  as  a  corollary  to  the 
general  hypothesis,  that  the  matter  of  a  star-space, 
possessing  the  four  fundamental  properties  as  pre- 
viously defined,  and  having  a  certain  pressural  relation 
to  space  as  previously  indicated,  will  have,  perpetually, 
throughout  changing  physical  conditions,  a  proportional 
quantity  in  motion,  depending  upon  a  relative  amount 
of  unequilibrated  force.  This  unequilibrated  force  con- 
stitutes the  kinetic  energy  of  the  star  system,  which,  as 
hereafter  shown,  will  principally  manifest  in  cyclic 
forms. 

Furthermore,  it  is  indicated  that,  by  a  play  between 
the  fundamental  properties  of  matter  under  the  relation 
of  matter  to  space,  a  limitation  to  the  division  of 
matter  obtains  in  definite  unchanging  minimum  atomic 
and  molecular  quantities  of  ether  matter,  and,  as  will 
be  afterwards  shown,  in  ponderable  atomic  and  ionic 
or  molecular  ultimates ;  and  also  that  there  is  established 


ANODE  AND  CATHODE  PARTICLES.  19 

a  definite  quantitative  relation  between  ponderable  and 
ether  matter. 

ANODE   AND    CATHODE    PARTICLES. 

The  immediate  result  of  the  reactions  mentioned  as 
occurring  in  a  universal  ether  under  pressure  must  be 
the  formation  of  ponderable  particles,  each  having  the 
value  of  two  positive  atoms  of  ether  and  one  negative 
atom  of  ether.  This  gives  the  particle  a  free  force 
equal  to  one  positive  atom  of  ether,  which  neutralizes 
inductively  by  polarizing  the  ether  not  participating  in 
the  reactions.  These  we  will  designate  cathode  par- 
ticles (Fig.  2). 

Coincident  with  the  formation  of  cathode  particles 
counterparts  are  formed,  which  we  will  call  anode 
particles.  The  formative  process  of  these  is  initiated 
by  a  nascent  repulsion  between  two  negative  ether 
atoms,  one  becoming  a  constituent  of  a  cathode  par- 
ticle and  the  other  being  repelled.  It  is  obvious  that 
matter  thus  arranges  itself  into  a  simple,  imponderable 
or  ether  form ;  and  into  a  more  complex  form  generally 
known  as  ponderable  matter.  The  ether  form  is  in- 
sensible to  gravitational  or  repelling  forces  by  virtue 
of  its  positive  and  negative  atoms  neutralizing  by  maxi- 
mum contact  and  at  minimum  distance,  according  to  the 
law  that  forces  react  with  an  intensity  inversely  as  the 
square  of  distance,  subject  to  the  relation  of  all  matter 
and  all  force  to  all  space.  By  the  same  law  complex 
matter  is  subject  to  gravitational  and  repelling  forces. 

The  complex  form  of  matter  has  the  two  ultimates, 
the  anode  and  cathode  particles,  which  can  be  differ- 
entiated thus:  Cathode  particles,  possessing  positive 
free  forces,  seek  the  cathode  of  an  electrolyte,  are  in 
general  concentrative  and  form  solid  masses  by  virtue 


20  ANODE  AND  CATHODE  PARTICLES. 

of  their  inherent  property;  and  in  the  construction  of 
molecules,  masses,  or  systems,  when  free  from  extrinsic 
influence,  they  assume  central  positions.  Anode  par- 
ticles, possessing  negative  free  forces,  seek  the  anode 
of  an  electrolyte,  are  in  general  diffusive,  and  form 
gaseous  masses  by  virtue  of  their  inherent  property; 
and  in  the  formation  of  molecules,  masses,  or  systems, 
when  free  from  extrinsic  influences,  they  assume  cir- 
cumferential positions.  The  cathode  particle  or  mass 
is  related  to  the  ether  molecule  as  3  to  2,  or  perhaps  as 
6  to  2.  The  anode  particle  or  mass  has  been  estimated 
to  be  related  to  the  cathode  particle  as  1000  to  1.  Anode 
and  cathode  particles  are  the  resultants  of  a  residual 
gas  under  extreme  decrement  of  pressure,  and  are  the 
ponderable  elements  which,  when  electrified,  become 
the  anode  and  cathode  rays  of  a  Crookes  or  partial 
vacuum  tube.  The  formative  processes  of  these  par- 
ticles is  important  to  consider.  The  cathode  particle  is 
formed  by  the  inherent  forces  of  its  constituents.  The 
anode  particle  is  an  aggregation  driven  from,  and  en- 
closed by,  the  induction  fields  of  cathode  particles,  its 
own  forces  being  dissolving.  Its  quantity  is  a  com- 
promise between  its  own  dissociating  forces  and  the 
insulating  properties  of  surrounding  fields.  The  anode 
particle  is  neutralized  through,  and  herded  by,  in- 
duction fields.  The  interpretation  of  the  facts  of  elec- 
trified partial  vacua  as  expressed  by  the  author  in  a 
former  work,  is  in  accordance  with  the  above  con- 
clusions. The  conclusions  are  also  in  accordance  with 
the  general  facts  of  chemical  dissociation.  A  synthetic 
reaction  in  a  universal  ether  under  a  minimum  pressure 
would  not  produce  a  neutral  substance  composed  of 
two  positive  and  two  negative  atoms,  but  substances 
such  as  cathode  and  anode  particles  with  free  molecular 


ANODE  AND  CATHODE  PARTICLES.  21 

forces.  The  law  governing  the  relation  of  pressure  and 
force  may  be  formulated  thus:  Ponderable  molecules 
divide  and  redivide  under  decrease  of  pressure  with  in- 
creased molecular  free  forces  until  the  minimum  molec- 
ular quantities  of  ponderable  matter  are  reached.  The 
ideal  universal  ether  under  pressure  being  in  a  sub- 
normal state  of  molecular  formation  would  adjust  it- 
self to  meet  the  conditions  of  minimum  pressure.  A 
further  adjustment  would  depend  upon  the  degree  of 
pressure.  Matter  thus  arranges  itself  into  positive  and 
negative  units  which  radiate  force,  and  into  a  neutral 
substance  (ether)  which  acts  as  a  medium  of  radia- 
tion. 

An  extraordinary  correspondence  of  theory  and  fact, 
occurs  in  the  case  of  anode  and  cathode  particles.  Theo- 
retically we  construct  the  cathode  particle  of  one 
negative  and  two  positive  ether  atoms.  The  counterpart 
of  this  would  be  one  positive  and  two  negative  ultimates 
for  an  anode  particle.  But  it  is  clear  that  a  con- 
struction of  one  concentrative  ultimate  and  two  diffusive 
ultimates  would  not  hold.  The  facts  show  that  the 
anode  particle  can  only  exist  with  a  mass  1000  times 
that  of  the  cathode  particle — under  minimum  pressure. 

It  must  be  clearly  borne  in  mind  that  we  are  consider- 
ing the  anode  and  cathode  particles  as  ponderable 
elements,  and  unelectrified.  The  ponderable  cathode 
particle  seeks  the  cathode  of  a  Crookes  tube,  is  nega- 
tively electrified,  and  becomes  the  element  of  cathode 
rays.  The  anode  particle  seeks  the  anode  of  the  tube, 
is  positively  electrified,  and  is  the  element  of  anode  rays. 

The  cathode  particle  consisting  of  two  positive  ulti- 
mates of  concentrative  force  and  one  negative  ultimate 
of  diffusive  force  is  theoretically  indivisible  by  the 
forces  of  the  universe.  The  forces  of  matter  cannot  be 


22  ANODE  AND  CATHODE  PARTICLES. 

sufficiently  intensified  to  dissociate  it.  The  author  has 
considered  the  chemical,  electrical,  and  physical  forces 
of  dissociation  and  has  concluded  that  no  force  of  any 
character  can  be  brought  to  bear  that  will  disrupt  the 
chemical  union  of  two  positive  and  one  negative  ulti- 
mate quantities.  The  only  way  that  such  a  combination 
can  be  broken  up  is  to  alter  the  relation  of  all  matter 
and  all  force  to  all  space.  It  is  this  relation  which 
dictates  its  constituent  value.  The  facts  pertaining  to 
electrified  partial  vacua  support  the  theoretical  con- 
clusions. The  cathode  particle  is  the  tenuous  ultimate 
which  all  ponderable  matter  strains  to  reach,  and 
when  reaching  the  progress  of  dissociation  of  ponderable 
matter  reaches  its  finality.  It  is  important  to  appreciate 
the  fact  that  a  cathode  particle  neutralized  by  the  poles 
of  ether  molecules  is  in  equilibration  as  regards  the 
strain  to  neutralize  at  minimum  distance  and  by  maxi- 
mum contact.  It  is  the  ultimate  equipoise  of  the  forces 
of  ponderable  matter  (Fig.  2).  It  is  also  important  to 
note  the  relation  of  the  neutralization  strain  to  the  con- 
centrativeness  of  ponderable  matter.  The  neutralization 
strain  is  not  accumulative,  whereas  the  concentrative- 
ness  of  positive  matter  is  accumulative. 

The  dissociation  of  a  mass  caused  by  neutralization 
strain  is  effected  by  the  strain  of  its  surface  molecules, 
which  is  not  made  greater  by  their  being  part  of  the 
mass.  It  is  a  localized  property  of  the  molecules  and 
it  effects  a  semi-chemical  union  between  ponderable  and 
ether  matter.  The  neutralization  strain  of  one  particle 
is  not  added  to  the  strain  of  adjoining  particles — it  is 
not  a  radiating  force.  On  the  other  hand,  gravitational 
force  radiates  and  is  proportional  to  the  mass.  Hence 
particles  placed  in  vacua  and  free  from  the  concen- 
tration of  lines  of  force  dissociate  under  the  neutral- 


THE    ETHER.  23 

ization  strain;  but  the  same  particles  placed  in  the 
midst  of  other  positive  matter  or  midst  concenerating 
lines  of  force  are  solidified.  It  is  clear  that  the  neutral- 
ization strain  is  a  dissociating  force,  is  opposed  by  the 
gravitational  force,  and  supported  by  repulsion  between 
negative  particles.  The  neutralization  strain  is  the  dis- 
sociating principle  of  positive  matter. 


THE  PHYSICAL   CHARACTER  OP  THE  ETHER. 

An  epitome  of  the  physical  character  of  the  Ether 
follows : 

Ether  Is  Immolecularly  Neutralizable.  Its  atoms  of 
equal  value  possess  minimum  quantity,  are  purely  of 
opposite  quality,  and  neutralize  at  minimum  distance 
and  by  maximum  contact. 

Ether  is  Imponderable.  Ether  is  imponderable  (1) 
because  its  atomic  forces  are  neutralized  at  minimum 
distance  and  by  maximum  contact;  and  (2)  because  the 
universal  equilibrium  under  the  relation  of  all  matter 
to  all  space  is  maintained  by  ether  filling  space  not 
occupied  by  other  matter. 

Ether  Is  Non-cohesive.  Ether  does  not  possess  the 
property  of  cohesiveness  as  its  forces  are  immolecularly 
neutralized,  and  the  condition  is  safeguarded  by  the 
construction  of  its  molecules  being  such  that  molecular 
surface  matter  is  negative  in  quality.  The  ether  is 
f rictionless,  inviscid,  and  non-rigid. 

Ether  Offers  Minimum  Resistance  to  Moving  Bodies. 
Ether  possesses  fixity  only  as  a  medium  of  radiating 
forces.  By  virtue  of  its  imponderability  and  non- 
cohesiveness  it  offers  no  resistance  to  moving  bodies  by 
its  intrinsic  forces. 


24  THE    ETHER. 

Ether  Offers  Minimum  Resistance  to  Convective  Cur- 
rents. Electrified  particles  fly  through  partial  vacua 
with  decreased  resistance  directly  proportional  to  the 
decrement  of  the  gas  to  the  critical  point  of  there  being 
no  ponderable  particles  to  electrify. 

Ether  Is  Compressible.  Free  molecular  interspaces 
allow  ether  to  be  compressed  by  the  attraction  and  re- 
pulsion of  its  atomic  forces — polarization — or  by  vibra- 
tory impulse — impact — thus  lessening  or  obliterating  its 
intermolecular  spaces. 

Ether  Is  Elastic.  Ether  molecules  are  distorted  by 
pulsations  or  by  polarizing  forces,  and  by  their  im- 
molecular  forces  immediately  resume  their  rotundity 
when  the  extrinsic  force  is  removed. 

Ether  Is  Porous.  Ether  molecules  being  globular 
must  have  interspaces,  hence  the  substance  is  porous. 
Moreover,  ether  is  the  only  substance  which  has  a  true 
porosity,  as  it  fills  the  intermolecular  spaces  of  other 
substances. 

Ether  Molecules  Possess  Impenetrability.  That  no 
two  portions  of  matter  can  occupy  the  same  space  at 
the  same  time  is  an  inherent  property  of  all  matter.  A 
positive  atom  of  ether  does  not  mix  with  a  negative 
atom. 

Ether  Cannot  Be  Projected.  Being  imponderable 
ether  cannot  be  projected  as  ponderable  matter  is  pro- 
jected. Ether  is  incapable  of  acquiring  a  momentum. 

Ether  Density.  The  molecular  mass  of  ether  is  just 
as  dense  as  the  molecular  mass  of  any  other  matter. 
The  tenuity  of  ether  depends  on  its  true  porosity. 

Ether  as  Insensible  Matter.  Ether  is  insensible  be- 
cause our  senses  do  not  identify  it  with  sensation.  It  is 
insensible  in  the  sense  that  it  is  imponderable.  How- 
ever, ether  responds  to  all  the  forces  and  in  this  respect 


THE    ETHER.  25 

it  is  sensible  matter.  Ether  is  the  great  medium  in 
transmitting  force.  It  is  absolutely  the  only  medium 
for  the  transmutation  of  the  forces. 

Ether  Is  Polarizable.  The  molecules  of  ether  when 
free  from  extrinsic  forces  assume  the  globular  form 
with  a  positive  center  and  a  negative  circumference. 
By  the  push  and  pull  of  extrinsic  forces  the  positive 
atoms  become  eccentric,  the  molecules,  lose  their  im- 
molecular  neutralization  and  transmit  force  by  polar- 
ization. Thus  the  static  forces  of  the  universe  radiate 
influences  through  ether,  within  their  fields  of  neutral- 
ization. By  polarization  ether  inductively  acquires 
properties  primarily  possessed  by  ponderable  matter. 

Ether  Is  the  Perfect  Medium.  Its  imponderability, 
its  compressibility,  its  true  porosity,  its  delicate  elas- 
ticity, its  non-cohesiveness,  its  polarizability,  together 
with  the  complete  immolecular  neutralizability  of  its 
forces,  and  its  perfect  equilibrium  in  space,  allow  the 
ether  to  be  a  perfect  medium,  transmitting  force  in- 
fluences (polarizations),  and  radiations  (undulations), 
without  loss  of  energy,  with  minimum  resistance,  and 
with  maximum  velocity. 

Ether  Produces  Chemical  and  Physical  Changes.  As 
ether  possesses  the  property  of  impenetrability,  when 
unequilibrated  it  is  capable  of  chemically  and  phys- 
ically dissociating  ponderable  matter,  thus  heat  sep- 
arates atoms,  molecules,  or  masses,  or  allows  them  to 
separate  by  their  intrinsic  forces.  If  a  mass  of  ether 
were  confined  at  a  maximum  density  ponderable  matter 
could  not  gravitationally  encroach  on  it. 

Ether  Atoms.  When  chemically  dissociated  ether 
atoms  become  Electric  matter.  They  pass  from  the 
lowest  to  the  highest  physical  potencies. 


26  A  COSMIC  UNIT. 

EVOLUTION   OP   A   SOLAR   SYSTEM. 

We  will  now  conceive  that  the  star-space  of  the 
Solar  system,  as  a  sequence  of  the  Creative  act,  is  occu- 
pied by  matter:  (1)  Ether,  simple  in  its  molecular 
construction  and  imponderable;  (2)  Complex  or  ponder- 
able matter:  (a)  cathode  particles,  (b)  anode  particles. 
Ponderable  matter  is  thus  in  extreme  diffusibility.  It 
must  be  noted  that  although  all  masses  of  complex 
matter  are  ponderable,  that  they  are  so  by  virtue  of 
their  positive  constituents,  and  that  their  negative  con- 
stituents, of  equal  aggregate  value  to  the  positive,  are 
imponderable.  Thus  quantity  and  weight  of  matter  are 
clearly  differentiated.  Mass  if  measured  by  weight 
does  not  exactly  indicate  quantity.  Negative  matter 
cannot  be  directly  measured  by  weight,  in  fact  it  is 
opposed  to  weight  by  its  resistance  to  compression  in 
the  concentrated  field  of  a  positive  force.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  strain  of  the  medium  between  a  positive  and 
a  negative  body  imparts  to  negative  matter  an  attrac- 
tive force.  Opposed  to  this  is  the  consideration  that  in 
a  mass  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  positive  matter  that 
is  neutralized  according  to  the  law  of  distance  and  hence 
is  unweighable.  The  amount  of  positive  matter  neutral- 
ized within  a  mass  so  that  it  is  imponderable  must 
vary  according  to  its  molecular  constitution,  always 
bearing  in  mind  that  positive  matter  strains  to  approxi- 
mate the  measuring  force,  and  hence  may  be  placed 
advantageously  to  be  acted  on.  Weight  at  least  indi- 
cates if  it  does  not  exactly  measure  the  quantity  of 
positive  matter. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  show  how  the  Solar  sys- 
tem may  be  built  up  from  anode  and  cathode  particles. 
These  are  the  maximum  diffusible  state  of  ponderable 


A  COSMIC  UNIT.  27 

matter,  and  their  forces  directly  or  inductively  dominate 
the  star-space  of  the  Solar  system. 

Matter  is  without  mass  form.  Its  energy  rests  in  the 
diffused  state  of  cathode  particles — in  the  gravitational 
force  of  diffused  positive  matter.  A  cathode  particle 
surrounded  by  ether  satisfies  the  strain  to  neutralize  at 
minimum  distance  and  by  maximum  contact  (Fig.  2) 
under  the  quantitative  relation  of  all  matter  and  all 
force  to  all  space;  but  cathode  particles  in  diffusion 
possess  a  potential  energy  of  mutual  or  mass  attraction. 
Hence  nuclear  masses  begin  to  form  throughout  the 
space,  and  anode  particles  assume  circumferential  po- 
sitions. The  nuclear  masses  being  attracted  by  other 
nuclear  masses  larger  masses  will  inevitably  be  formed. 
The  differential  arrangement  resulting  from  positive 
matter  seeking  the  center  thus  squeezing  negative  matter 
towards  the  circumference  applies  to  the  whole  system 
as  well  as  individually  to  the  planetary  masses,  and 
coincident  with  these  processes  matter  equilibrates  in 
larger  molecular  quantities.  The  molecular  form  of 
matter  is  initiated  and  maintained  by  the  strain  of 
positive  and  negative  matter  to  neutralize  at  minimum 
distance  and  by  maximum  contact.  Attraction  between 
constituent  positives  supported  by  gravitation,  pressure, 
etc.,  tends  to  bring  molecules  together,  thus  increasing 
their  size.  Repulsion  between  constituent  negatives 
tends  to  the  disruption  of  the  molecular  form;  never- 
theless, negative  molecules  are  relatively  large  as  pre- 
viously shown.  Molecules  and  masses,  by  their  intrinsic 
forces,  assume  the  globular  form,  but  as  will  be  after- 
wards shown  this  form  by  extrinsic  forces  is  modified 
towards  the  oval. 

Here  it  is  important  to  consider  the  evolutionary 
changes  attending  condensation:  (1)  Where  cathode 


28  A  COSMIC  UNIT. 

particles  predominate  metallic  substances  will  result, 
(2)  Where  equal  quantities  of  cathode  and  anode  par- 
ticles prevail  crystallization  will  occur.  Both  processes 
will  be  extended  from  nuclei,  although  these  nuclei  may 
unite  after  the  processes  are  initiated.  The  crystalli- 
zation will  give  the  masses  polarity.  (3)  Where  negative 
force  predominates  matter  will  remain  in  diffusion. 

The  direction  of  the  polarity  will  be  uniform,  not 
only  as  regards  the  solar  star-space,  but  as  regards 
cosmic  space.  It  will  be  infinitely  uniform.  This  will 
furnish  a  universal  north  and  south  with  a  qualitative 
distinction  as  positive  and  negative  poles.  A  crystal  is 
formed  from  a  nucleus  and  the  molecules  polarize  uni- 
formly. The  initiatory  direction  becomes  the  common 
or  universal  direction.  The  primary  condensations  are 
therefore  crystalline  rocks  infiltrated  by  metallic  de- 
posits, as  found  in  the  unstratified  rocks  of  the  Earth 
A  planet  grows,  as  a  crystal  grows,  by  extension,  add- 
ing  molecule  to  molecule,  and  molecular  pole  to  molec- 
ular pole  (Fig.  30). 

Concurrent  with  the  formation  of  solid  bodies  ether 
is  set  free  from  the  molecular  fields  of  the  condensing 
elements.  This  ether  will  radiate  as  heat.  It  is  evident 
that  the  mass  in  the  center  of  the  solar  space  is 
advantageously  placed  to  excel  in  dimensions,  and  thus 
to  dominate  the  system.  Hence  heat  radiating  from  this 
body  will  be  incident  to  a  smaller  proximate  body.  The 
latter,  being  polarized,  will  convert  the  incident  energy 
into  electric  currents  and  these  in  turn  will  charge  the 
poles  of  the  smaller  body  (Fig.  7).  What  occurs  is 
exactly  analogous  to  that  which  occurs  in  a  galvanic 
battery  in  which  the  positive  zinc  becomes  negatively 
charged  and  the  relatively  negative  copper  becomes 
positively  charged.  In  the  case  of  the  smaller  body 


A  COSMIC  UNIT.  29 

the  positive  ponderable,  or  north  pole,  is  negatively 
charged,  and  the  negative  ponderable,  or  south  pole,  is 
positively  charged.  A  study  of  electrified  vacua  and 
of  the  facts  relative  to  aurora  polar  is  make  it  conclusive 
that  these  charges  will  form  convection  currents  which 
will  seek  the  central  body — the  energy  emanating  as 
heat  from  the  larger  or  central  body,  and  incident  to 
the  smaller  body,  will  be  returned  by  the  latter  as 
convection  electric  currents  to  the  poles  of  the  larger 
body  (Fig.  7). 

There  are  thus  deposited  at  the  poles  of  the  central 
body  differential  electric  charges  and  differential  ions. 
The  electric  charges  form  currents  from  the  poles  to 
the  equator,  where  they  neutralize  and  are  transformed 
into  heat,  and  the  ions  build  up  the  poles  with  differ- 
ential forces  (Fig.  8).  This  body  is  the  Sun  of  the 
system.  The  smaller  body  becomes  a  proximate  planet. 
The  solar  electric  currents  are  the  primary  currents  of 
the  system  with  an  induction  field  as  extensive  as  the 
system.  The  primary  currents  swing  the  induction  field 
into  a  great  wheel-like  form  with  definite  rotatory  direc- 
tions, and  we  have  thus  a  type  of  the  Solar  systems  of 
the  universe,  which  differentiate  as  to  the  contemporary 
phases  of  their  great  cycles,  as  to  the  quantities  of  their 
ponderable  matter,  as  to  the  quantities  of  their  ener- 
gies, and  as  to  the  dimensions  of  their  star-spaces,  but 
are  identical  as  to  the  principles  and  general  forms  of 
their  evolutionary  processes  and  cyclic  energies. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Reactions  of  the  Forces  of  Distant  Bodies. 
The  primary  forces  are  static  or  current. 

Reactions  of  Primary  Static  Forces.  These  are  direct 
and  indirect.  The  direct  are  the  reciprocal  actions  of 
the  primary  forces  through  the  media;  the  indirect  re- 
actions are  those  of  media,  by  acquired  properties,  on 
primary  forces.  We  will  consider  ether  as  the  medium 
whose  polarizing  character  we  must  bear  in  mind. 

1.  Direct  Reactions  of  Distant  Static  Forces.  (1) 
Attraction  between  distant  positive  forces.  This  is  the 
gravitational  force  of  Newton.  It  is  lineal.  Bodies 
possessing  positive  free  forces  are  mutually  attracted. 
The  force  diffuses  through  the  medium  so  that  its  in- 
tensity is  inverse  as  the  square  of  the  distance.  Bod- 
ies with  negative  free  forces  develop  positive  poles 
on  which  the  distant  positive  force  acts.  The  medium 
is  in  contact  with  the  positive  pole,  and  according  to  the 
law  of  distance  the  induced  force  of  the  medium  is  ad- 
vantageously placed  to  act  on  the  pole  as  against  the 
free  negative  force  of  the  polarized  body.  The  force 
produces  a  contractile  strain  on  the  medium  and  the 
medium  quantitatively  modifies  itself  by  elimination. 
The  curvature  of  the  lines  of  force  at  the  boundary  of 
the  fields  indicate  the  mode  of  elimination  (Figs.  4s 
and  5s.  The  contractile  strain  in  the  lines  of  force 
is  caused  by  attraction  between  the  positive  atoms  of 
the  medium  in  which  a  force  has  been  set  free  by 
neutralization  of  negative  atomic  forces  in  contact  with 
the  primary  bodies  (Fig.  3). 


REACTIONS  OF  DISTANT  FORCES.  31 

(2)  Repulsion  between  distant  negative  forces.  This 
force  is  lineal  in  character.  It  diffuses  directly  as  the 
square  of  the  distance  traveled.  It  causes  an  attenu- 
ation of  the  medium  by  the  mutual  repulsion  of  the 
negative  atoms  in  which  a  force  has  been  set  free  by 
neutralization  of  positive  atoms  by  the  primary  force. 
Bodies  with  positive  free  forces  develop  negative  poles 
and  the  induced  forces  in  the  medium  act  on  these,  but 
negative  poles  usually  assume  a  relatively  distal  position 
and  are  disadvantageously  placed  according  to  the  law 
of  distance.  At  the  boundary  line  between  approximate 
induction  fields  of  negative  bodies  the  lines  of  force  are 
straightened  and  matter  is  absorbed  by  the  fields  (Figs. 
4B  and  5s).  It  is  mainly  through  this  force  that  nega- 
tive electric  currents  travel. 

The  differential  positions  assumed  by  the  poles  of 
magnetic  and  electrolytic  bodies  should  be  emphatically 
noted.  Two  bodies  with  positive  free  forces  whose  con- 
stituents are  free  to  mutually  respond  to  the  external 
influences  will  present  their  positive  poles.  If  one  is 
fixed  and  dominating  a  like  relative  position  will  be 
assumed  by  the  other  responding.  If  both  bodies 
possess  fixed  constituents,  and  hence  irresponsive  to  the 
extrinsic  influence,  proximate  negative  poles  will  be 
maintained  in  position,  although  a  strain  no  doubt  is 
imparted  to  the  constituents  of  both  to  alter  their 
relative  polar  positions. 

Two  magnets  whose  negative  poles  approximate  main- 
tain the  relative  position.  The  Sun  and  Earth  during 
a  definite  period  of  the  year  mutually  present  their 
negative  poles  without  material  disturbance  of  the  main 
bodies.  That  there  is  a  disturbance  in  detail  will  be 
shown  in  the  analogous  action  of  the  Sun  on  the  water 
of  Mars.  On  the  other  hand,  a  comet,  whose  constit- 


32  REACTIONS  OF  DISTANT  FORCES. 

uents  are  not  fixed,  presents  its  electrolytic  positive  pole 
(head)  to  the  positive  of  the  Sun,  and  the  same  pole  to 
the  negative  of  the  Sun,  a  demonstration  of  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  attraction  between  positives  and  re- 
pulsion between  negatives.  Two  comets,  independent 
of  external  influence,  would  approach  each  other  (if 
approachment  were  possible)  head  foremost,  and  mutu- 
ally depart  tail  foremost.  The  moon  as  an  electrolyte 
constantly  presents  the  positive  pole  to  the  Earth,  thus 
following  the  example  of  a  cometary  body  towards  the 
Sun. 

(3)  Neutralization  between  a  positive  force  and  a  dis- 
tant negative  force.  The  forces  neutralize  through  the 
medium  by  means  of  an  induced  polarized  strain,  and 
the  medium  thus  acquires  an  elasticity.  The  medium, 
however,  remains  in  static  equilibrium  up  to  a  critical 
point — rupture — in  the  intensity  of  the  radiating  force. 
Up  to  the  point  of  rupture  of  the  medium  or  a  specific 
intensity  of  the  force,  the  direct  action  of  distant  forces 
of  opposite  quality  is  simply  neutralization  without  any 
kinetic  reaction  between  the  bodies  (Figs.  4A  and  SA). 
However,  at  the  instant  when  the  polarized  strain  is 
initiated  there  must  be  some  attraction  induced. 

2.  Indirect  Reactions  of  Distant  Static  Forces.  (1) 
Repulsion  between  distant  forces  of  like  quality  caused 
by  impenetrability  and  elasticity  of  fields  of  force  dis- 
torted under  pressure.  Each  free  force  inductively 
radiates  through  a  field  toward  a  point  of  neutraliza- 
tion. Fields  of  force  of  like  quality  are  mutually  im- 
penetrable, are  distorted  under  pressure,  and  acquire 
an  elasticity  which  exercises  a  repulsive  force  on  the 
primary  bodies.  Under  pressure  the  lines  of  force  are 
bent  as  in  Fig.  5e.  The  repelling  force  allows  the 
lines  to  straighten,  and  brings  more  matter  between  the 


REACTIONS  OF  DISTANT  FORCES.  33 

primary  bodies.  It  is  clear  that  the  repulsive  force  of 
the  fields  will  support  the  direct  reaction  between  two 
negative  bodies,  and  will  act  against  the  direct  reaction 
between  two  positive  bodies. 

Negative  molecules  or  negative  bodies  mutually  repel 
by  direct  and  by  indirect  reactions.  Positive  molecules 
and  positive  bodies  repel  each  other  by  the  elasticity  of 
their  fields  to  the  critical  point  of  equilibration,  while 
they  attract  each  other  by  a  direct  reaction  between  the 
primary  forces.  It  is  thus  that  positive  molecules  have 
free  intermolecular  fields  while  possessing  adhesive 
properties.  We  will  see  that  similar  conditions  prevail 
in  the  case  of  celestial  bodies.  It  is  through  the  im- 
penetrability, distortion,  and  consequent  elasticity  of 
fields  of  force  that  magnetic  and  electrified  bodies 
manifest  repulsion  under  the  law  "Likes  repel."  It 
is  mainly  through  the  impenetrability  of  like  fields  that 
positive  electric  currents  travel. 

(2)  Attraction  between  a  positive  body  and  a  distant 
negative  body.    The  medium  acquires  an  elasticity  from 
the  polarized  strain  which  reacts   on   the  bodies,   and 
when  the  primary  forces  are  intense,  causes  attraction. 
Thus  attraction  between  magnetic  and  between  electric 
bodies  manifest  under  the  law  of  "Unlikes  attract." 
The  attraction  is  mainly  caused  by  the  action  of  the 
positive  force  on  the  medium  and  is  partially  opposed 
by  the   action  of  the   negative   primary   force   on   the 
negative  atoms  of  the  medium  (Figs.  4A  and  5A).    Per- 
haps  all   kinetic    energy    between    bodies    of    different 
quality  should  be  classed  as  direct. 

(3)  Repulsion   of   negative   matter   from    a   concen- 
trated field  of   force.     Positive  forces   induce   concen- 
tration,   and   negative   forces   resist   concentration.      A 
negative  particle  placed  in  a  concentrated  field  will  be 


34  REACTIONS  OF  DISTANT  FORCES. 

squeezed  out  by  the  lines  of  force.  Two  positive  bodies 
being  attracted  will  squeeze  out  a  negative  body.  This 
is  an  indirect  repulsion  between  positive  and  negative 
forces.  We  will  find  that  each  particle  of  a  comet  as 
the  cometary  body  approaches  the  Sun  finds  an  equili- 
brated position  amidst  the  solar  lines  of  force,  where 
attraction  ceases.  Filling  a  hole  in  the  earth  with  sand 
squeezes  out  the  air.  This  is  an  example  of  attraction 
between  two  positive  bodies  repelling  a  negative  body. 
In  Fig.  3  let  the  plus  symbol  within  the  lower  circles 
denote  the  positive  free  forces  of  two  bodies.  As  in- 
dicated by  the  outer  arrows  the  direct  reaction  between 
the  bodies  is  attraction.  Let  the  minus  signs  within 
the  upper  circles  denote  the  negative  free  forces  of  two 
bodies.  As  indicated  by  the  arrows  the  direct  reaction 
between  the  bodies  is  repulsion.  The  direct  reaction 
between  an  upper  body  and  a  lower  body  is  simply 
neutralization.  The  direct  reactions  are  directed 
through  the  medium  by  a  polarized  strain  which  bestows 
on  the  medium  new  properties  which  react  on  the  pri- 
mary forces.  If  the  polarized  strain  is  relatively  below 
a  critical  degree  of  intensity  no  other  actions  manifest 
except  those  of  the  primary  forces. 

If  the  strain  on  the  medium  is  above  a  certain  critical 
point  it  manifests  properties  of  its  own  which  may 
support  or  oppose  the  reactions  of  the  primary  forces. 
For  instance  the  fields  of  two  lower  bodies  (Fig.  3) 
being  alike  and  mutually  impenetrable,  their  lines  of 
force  under  pressure  bend  as  shown  in  Fig.  SB,  thus 
undergoing  distortion  and  assuming  an  elasticity  which 
will  manifest  as  a  repulsive  force  between  the  two 
primary  bodies.  The  repulsion  depending  on  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  fields  opposes  the  action  of  the  primary 
forces,  as  indicated  by  the  inner  arrows. 


REACTIONS  OF  DISTANT  FORCES.  35 

The  fields  between  the  upper  or  negative  bodies  (Fig. 
3)  are  also  impenetrable,  are  distorted  under  pressure, 
and  assume  elastic  properties  which  manifest  as  a  re- 
pulsive force  between  the  two  bodies,  but  it  is  evident 
that  the  acquired  property  of  the  medium  and  the  direct 
reaction  of  the  primary  forces  support  each  other. 

The  field  between  a  positive  and  negative  body  being 
also  under  a  strain  (Fig.  3),  the  medium  acquires 
elastic  properties  which  may  produce  a  pull  on  the 
two  primary  bodies  as  in  the  case  of  magnetic  poles  of 
different  qualities;  or  the  field  may  be  ruptured  as  in 
the  case  of  an  electric  current. 

Another  important  property  acquired  by  a  medium  is 
its  repulsive  action  on  negative  matter  by  its  concen- 
trated lines  of  force.  It  is  evident  that  lines  of  force 
by  drawing  particles  towards  a  common  center  con- 
centrate the  particles.  Negative  matter  by  its  diffusi- 
bility  resists  this  concentration  and  hence  is  squeezed 
out  of  the  field.  Thus  an  indirect  repulsion  is  induced 
between  positive  and  negative  forces.  If  we  suppose 
a  negative  particle  placed  within  the  field  of  a  lower 
body  (Fig.  3),  we  can  see  that  the  field  will  squeeze 
out  the  particle  until  it  reaches  a  position  of  equilib- 
rium. Such  a  position  will  depend  on  the  degree  of 
concentration  of  the  lines  of  force  ,and  upon  the  ex- 
pansile power  of  the  particle. 

Another  indirect  method  of  repulsion  of  negative 
matter  is  by  the  direct  attraction  of  positive  bodies.  A 
negative  body  placed  between  the  two  lower  bodies 
(Fig.  3)  will  be  squeezed  out  by  the  approximating 
positive  bodies. 

Reactions  of  Primary  Current  Forces.  These  are 
more  clearly  manifested  in  the  case  of  electric  currents, 


36  KEACTIONS  OF  DISTANT  FORCES. 

although  other  currents  must  be  governed  by  the  same 
principles. 

1.  Reactions  of  a  Primary  Current  Force  and  Dis- 
tant Static  Forces.     We  will  consider  the  reaction  be- 
tween a  primary  electric  current  and  static  forces  in 
the  induction  field.     Around  a  primary  electric  current 
there   is   a   whirl  which   has   constant   direction   for   a 
constant  quality  of  force.    Fig.  15  shows  a  wire  through 
which  is  flowing  an  electric  current.    Within  the  electric 
field  is  placed  the  positive  pole  of  a  magnet  bent  and 
pivoted  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  free  to  rotate.     The 
direction  of  the  positive  current  is  from  A  to  B.     The 
positive  pole  rotates  from  left   to  right  as  indicated. 
Maxwell  formulated  the  following  law:    "The  direction 
of  the  current  and  that  of  the  resulting  magnetic  force 
are  related  to  one  another  as  are  the  rotation  and  for- 
ward   travel     of     an     ordinary     (right-handed)     cork 
screw."    The  author  has  formulated  the  following  gen- 
eral law:    Facing  an  approaching  positive,  or  receding 
negative,  primary  current,  a  positive  force  responding 
to    the    induction    rotates    from    right    to    left,    and    a 
negative    force    responding    to    the    induction    rotates 
from  left  to  right,  in  the  upper  segment  of  the  cycle. 

2.  Reactions  Between  Induction  Fields  of  Primary 
Currents.     Ampere  has  formulated  the  following  laws: 
(1)    "Parallel   electric   currents   of   opposite    direction 
mutually  repel;  those  of  the  same  direction  mutually 
attract."     Fig.  13  indicates  the  manifestation  of  this 
law.    When  the  currents  are  of  the  same  direction  the 
lines  of  force  tend  to  embrace  them;   when  they  are 
opposite  in  direction  the  lines  of  force  tend  to  pass 
between  and  repel  them.     (2)  A  series  of  laws  may  be 
summed    up :      "  Currents    obliquely    directed    induce 
stresses  in  the  surrounding  media,  tending  to  straighten 


KEACTIONS  OF  DISTANT  FORCES.  37 

their  paths,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  parallel  direction." 
(3)  "The  force  exerted  between  two  parallel  portions 
of  circuits  is  proportional  to  the  product  of  the  two 
currents,  to  the  length  of  the  portions,  and  inversely 
proportional  to  the  simple  distance  between  them." 
This  law  of  Ampere  is  fundamental  to  Kepler's  second 
law:  "The  radius- vector  of  a  planet  describes  equal 
areas  in  equal  times." 

Motions  resulting  from  the  reactions  of  distant  forces 
may  be  lineal,  spiral,  circular,  or  elliptical. 

It  is  evident  that  the  motion  produced  by  the  reactions 
of  the  static  forces  of  two  bodies  can  be  no  other  than 
lineal.  The  conclusion  is  inevitable  from  the  interpreta- 
tion of  relative  facts  that  the  orbital  revolution  of  a  body 
has  as  a  chief  causal  factor  a  central  current  force.  We 
expect  to  show  that  an  ellipse  is  a  compound  of  lineal 
and  circular  motion.  It  may  be  postulated  that  the  circu- 
lar element  of  orbital  motion  is  evolved  from  the  spiral 
form.  We  will  consider  two  elementary  motions:  (1) 
Lineal  motion  caused  by  the  push  or  pull  of  a  static  force ; 
(2)  Spiral  motion  caused  by  the  push  or  pull  of  a  current 
force.  When  the  distance  between  the  poles  of  the  cur- 
rent force  is  small  relative  to  the  distance  between  the 
primary  current  force  and  the  moving  body  the  motion 
approaches  the  circular  form.  Thus  we  may  regard  cir- 
cular motion  as  elementary.  The  primary  electric  cur- 
rent must  also  take  on  a  spiral  motion  and  this  we  have 
conceived  as  depending  on  the  orientation  of  molecules 
in  the  primary  conductor.  The  orientation  of  molecules 
is  a  subject  of  deep  scientific  importance  which  we  have 
discussed  elsewhere. 

Reactions  of  the  forces  of  distant  bodies  which  produce 
motion  may  be  classified  as  follow : 

(1)  Reactions  between  distant  static  forces  (mass  or 
polar) . 


38  REACTIONS  OP  DISTANT  FORCES. 

(2)  Reactions  between  distant  current   forces. 

(3)  Reactions   between   a  current  force   and  distant 
static  force. 

The  reactions  may  be  direct,  the  motion  being  the  re- 
sult of  reaction  of  the  primary  forces;  or  they  may  be 
indirect,  secondary  or  induced,  the  motion  being  the  re- 
sult of  an  acquired  property  of  the  medium.  The  motion 
may  be  compound  in  which  any  number  or  all  of  the  re- 
actions are  factors. 

It  is  in  the  Earth's  orbit  that  we  can  best  study  these 
forces.  The  electric  currents  of  the  Sun  produce  a  cir- 
cular motion  by  acting  on  the  static  forces  of  the  Earth. 
North  of  the  equator  of  the  Sun  the  orbit  is  contracted  by 
the  direct  reaction  between  positive  static  forces :  south 
it  is  dilated  by  the  direct  reaction  between  negative 
forces.  The  reactions  which  produce  seasonal  changes 
are  indirect  or  secondary.  The  orbital  revolution  of  the 
Earth  is  compound  and  embraces  all  of  the  reactions 
named.  The  Moon  is  a  case  of  a  body  under  the  influence 
of  the  static  forces  of  one  body  while  answering  to  the 
current  forces  of  another.  The  orbital  motions  of  a 
comet  are  less  complex  than  those  of  the  Earth  or  of 
those  of  the  Moon. 

Force  and  Energy.  Let  us  here  define  what  we 
mean  by  force  and  energy.  Our  conception  of  force 
is  that  it  rests  on  the  three  primary  properties  of 
matter:  Attraction  between  positive  bodies;  repul- 
sion between  negative  bodies;  and  the  mutual  strain  to 
neutralize  at  minimum  distance  and  by  maximum  con- 
tact. We  will  define  energy  as  force  changing  its  rela- 
tive position  or  seeking  equilibrium  in  obedience  to  the 
fundamental  properties  of  matter.  Energy  is  unequili- 
brated  force  seeking  equilibrium.  The  energy  of  a  state 
of  matter  is  that  departure  from  equilibrium  as  measured 
by  a  specific  criterion.  Thus  the  difference  in  the  equili- 


KEACTIONS  OF  DISTANT  FORCES.  39 

bration  of  ether  and  electric  matter  is  the  energy  of^elec- 
tric  matter.  The  difference  in  the  equilibration  of  oxygen 
and  coal  on  the  one  hand  and  carbon  dioxide  and  water* 
on  the  other  is  the  energy  of  the  former.  If  we  speak 
of  potential  energy  then  we  must  conceive  of  a  force  avail- 
able for  change  of  relative  position.  The  energy  of  the 
ideal  creation  embraced  the  forces  of  the  electric  masses. 
The  energy  of  the  ether  resulting  from  the  union  of  the 
electric  masses  was  the  strain  to  neutralize  by  greater 
contact  and  at  less  distance  which  was  not  resisted  by 
pressure.  The  succeeding  pressure  changed  this  energy 
to  attraction  between  cathode  particles  which  is  virtually 
mass  attraction.  Only  a  very  small  portion  of  the  forces 
of  the  universe  can  assume  energy  conditions  at  any  one 
time,  the  remainder  being  in  different  states  of  equilib- 
rium to  which  the  energy  conditions  must  be  related.  It 
is  evident,  however,  that  as  the  ether  molecule  and  the 
cathode  particle  are  the  ultimate  equilibrates  as  regards 
electric  and  ponderable  energy  all  forces  are  capable  of 
assuming  energy  conditions.  The  energy  of  the  solar 
system  consists  principally  of  that  stored  in  the  Sun, 
which  in  the  main  is  diffused  positive  matter.  It  may 
be  postulated  that  however  placed,  and  whatever  physi- 
cal condition  matter  of  the  solar  system  may  be  sup- 
posed to  assume,  the  relation  to  space  and  its  inherent 
properties  would  impel  an  arrangement  so  that  its 
energy  conditions  would  be  constant.  All  the  forces  of 
the  universe  could  not  possibly  be  placed  in  equilibrium 
at  the  same  time.  The  forces  of  the  solar  system,  or 
those  of  any  other  celestial  unit,  based  on  the  properties 
of  matter  as  stated,  demand  an  unequilibrated  portion 
as  energy. 


CHAPTER  III. 
The  Solar  System. 

The  solar  system  in  its  entirety  possesses  four  signifi- 
cant features:  (1)  Its  wheel-like  form;  (2)  its  isola- 
tion; (3)  its  polarization;  (4)  its  intrinsic  neutral- 
ization. 

No  known  force  can  account  for  the  wheel-like  form 
of  the  solar  system  except  electric  currents,  and  those 
placed  in  the  central  body,  the  Sun.  The  plane  of  the 
Sun's  equator  cuts  the  wheel  into  two  equal  parts,  and 
this  may  be  conceived  as  the  normal  plane  of  the  orbits 
of  the  planetary  bodies,  and  their  obliquities  accordingly 
should  be  calculated  from  this  plane.  If  the  poles  of  the 
Sun  were  simply  solargraphical  expressions,  having  no 
differential  potentialities,  there  would  be  no  wheel-like 
form  of  the  solar  system.  All  calculations  of  the  posi- 
tions of  the  bodies  of  the  solar  system,  or  of  their  orbits, 
should  be  made  in  reference  to  their  relations  to  the 
plane  of  the  solar  equator,  or  in  reference  to  the  solar 
poles. 

The  isolation  of  the  solar  system  is  kinetically  com- 
plete. It  takes  light  four  years  to  traverse  the  inter- 
vening space  separating  it  from  its  nearest  known 
neighbors.  No  ponderable  matter  can  ever  cross  this 
ethereal  ocean.  Its  dimensions  are  determined  by  the 
quantitative  relation  of  all  matter  and  all  force  to  all 
space,  and  by  the  relative  amount  of  the  inductive  force 
of  the  solar  system.  The  star-space  of  the  solar  system 
cannot  be  invaded  by  external  ponderable  matter,  its 
dimensions  are  definite,  but  it  is  modifiable  in  form  be- 
cause occupied  by  a  body  of  matter  which  is  elastic  and 


THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM.  41 

subject  to  continual  change  in  the  character  of  its  ener- 
gies. 

The  system  has  a  common  direction  of  polarization, 
that  is  to  say  all  the  north  poles  of  the  bodies  are 
qualitatively  positive  and  all  the  south  are  qualitatively 
negative.  The  differentiation  as  regards  the  planets  is 
primarily  caused  by  the  direction  of  the  axes  of  crys- 
tallized bodies,  but  an  electrolytic  arrangement  occurs 
under  the  influence  of  solar  attraction  and  repulsion,  as 
we  will  show  when  considering  the  evolution  of  a  planet. 
The  polarity  of  the  universe  is  a  determinating  factor  in 
the  direction  of  the  polarity  of  the  solar  system,  and 
may  be  the  only  cause  of  maintaining  this  direction  dur- 
ing the  nebulous  phase  of  the  great  cycle.  A  common 
direction  to  a  general  or  cosmic  polarization  will  allow 
the  media,  between  solar  systems  in  north  and  south 
directions,  to  be  in  equilibrium,  thus  in  these  directions 
neither  attraction  nor  repulsion  occurs  between  solar 
systems.  At  right  angles  to  this  general  polarity  we 
will  show  that  there  may  be  slight  repulsion  between 
systems.  This  we  will  further  discuss  when  we  consider 
the  influence  of  the  Sun's  forces. 

The  capacity  of  the  solar  system  for  self  neutral- 
ization is  an  important  feature.  Any  form  of  a  con- 
tradiction of  the  postulate  that  the  system  is  self  neu- 
tralizable  is  inconceivable.  The  isolation  of  the  system 
suggests  the  conception,  and  the  intrinsic  phenomena 
of  the  system  support  it.  The  positive  matter  and  the 
negative  matter  of  the  universe  must  be  quantitatively 
equal.  The  apportionment  must  be  such  that  each  star- 
space  or  each  solar  system  as  a  cosmic  unit  contains 
equal  quantities  of  the  qualitatively  differentiated  ulti- 
mate elements  of  matter.  Each  solar  system  possesses  an 
auto-sufficiency  for  its  own  evolutionary  processes;  and 


42  SOLAR  SYSTEM — THE  SUN. 

the  cycles  induced  by  its  energies  constitute  a  perpetual 
motion. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  discuss  the  features  of  the 
elementary  bodies  of  the  solar  system  (Fig.  6). 

THE  SUN. 

The  forces  of  the  Sun  dominate  the  system.  Recog- 
nizing this  fact  we  will  consider  the  various  elements  of 
the  system  from  the  viewpoint  of  the  Sun,  and  from 
the  standpoint  of  his  dominance.  The  forces  of  the  Sun 
may  be  classified  as  follows:  (1)  Mass  attraction;  (2) 
electrolytic  attraction  and  repulsion;  (3)  heat  and  light; 
(4)  electric  currents. 

Mass  Attraction.  Positive  matter  predominates  in  the 
Sun's  mass.  The  only  negative  element  that  has  been 
detected  by  spectrum  analysis  is  helium,  and  that  is 
probably  nascent  and  escaping  with  lightning  speed 
from  the  squeeze  of  a  concentrated  field  of  force.  The 
positive  mass  of  the  Sun  draws  toward  it  the  positive 
matter  of  the  solar  system.  The  matter  of  the  field  is 
thus  concentrated.  What  is  important  to  understand 
is  that  the  solar  lines  of  force  passing  through  the  ether 
concentrate  this  substance  as  well  as  ponderable  matter. 
In  the  ether  each  line  of  force  must  be  the  breadth 
(thus  differing  from  the  geometrical  line)  of  an  ether 
molecule,  and  the  distinguishing  character  of  the  line 
must  be  a  polarization.  The  ether  invariably  presents 
its  neutralizing  pole  to  the  primary  force  (Fig.  3).  The 
force  is  thus  propagated  by  each  distant  pole  polarizing 
the  succeeding  molecule.  These  lines  of  force  partake 
of  the  same  character  as  Faraday's  lines.  Negative 
matter  when  dominant,  owing  to  its  inherent  diffusi- 
bility,  resists  concentration  and  is  squeezed  out  of  the 
field,  be  that  an  ether  or  a  ponderable  field.  The  result 


SOLAR  SYSTEM — THE  SUN.  43 

is  that,  generally  as  regards  ponderable  matter,  the 
positive  variety,  which  may  be  considered  as  the  only 
matter  giving  ponderable  reactions,  prevails  in  a  pro- 
portion inversely  as  the  distance  from  the  Sun,  and  that 
negative  matter  prevails  in  a  proportion  directly  as  the 
distance  from  the  Sun.  There  are  a  few  exceptions  to 
this  rule  which  we  will  afterward  point  out.  This  rule 
does  not  apply  to  ether,  as  in  this  substance  positive 
and  negative  matter  is  quantitatively  equal  throughout 
the  universe. 

Gravitational  force  is  absolutely  lineal.  It  holds  the 
planets  in  position  against  repelling  forces.  It  throws  a 
blanket  of  concentrating  lines  of  force  over  all  planets. 
The  Earth  is  more  concentrated  than  Neptune.  Put  the 
Earth  in  the  position  of  Neptune  and  it  would  immedi- 
ately diffuse  into  the  condition  of  the  latter,  coinci- 
dently  altering  the  relative  amount  of  its  positive  and 
negative  constituents. 

The  Sun  dominates  and  his  mass  attraction  concen- 
trates even  the  minutest  molecule.  The  water  molecule 
under  the  law  that  positive  and  negative  matter  strains 
to  neutralize  at  minimum  distance  with  maximum  con- 
tact would  break  up  into  oxygen  and  hydrogen  were 
it  not  for  the  blanket  of  concentrating  force  spread  by 
the  Sun.  The  same  concentrating  influence  is  exerted 
on  all  matter,  even  on  the  ether.  Where  this  force  is 
attenuated  as  in  the  outer  planets,  matter  diffuses  by  its 
own  inherent  properties. 

The  forces  of  the  lines  emanating  from  the  Sun  divide 
and  redivide  as  they  pass  through  the  ether  molecules, 
thus  diffusing  directly  as  the  square  of  distance.  The 
force  of  each  molecule  of  the  medium  acts  by  contact  on 
the  succeeding.  The  force  diffuses  as  the  square  of  dis- 


44  SOLAR  SYSTEM — THE  SUN. 

tance,  but  the  diffused  force  acts  by  contact  and  at  zero 
distance. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  the  outer  planets  to  be  at  a 
high  temperature.  The  Sun  is  the  only  body  at  a  high 
temperature.  The  outer  planets  are  no  hotter  than  the 
Earth's  atmosphere.  They  are  diffused  by  there  being 
present  a  relatively  large  amount  of  negative  matter, 
and  by  the  solar  lines  of  force  being  weak  at  that  dis- 
tance. Each  planet  is  in  an  equilibrated  position  and 
condition,  and  the  only  modification  that  can  occur  is 
from  a  change  in  the  relative  influence  of  the  Sun. 

Gravitational  force  retards  orbital  rotation  by  acting 
lineally  on  the  proximate  surface  of  the  planet,  thus 
producing  an  axial  rotation  analogous  to  that  of  a  ball 
rolling  on  a  floor.  This  is  the  case  of  the  planets  from 
the  Earth  to  Uranus,  inclusively.  When  the  gravi- 
tational lines  of  force  are  intense  the  retardation  be- 
comes actually  inhibitory  to  axial  rotation,  as  in  the 
case  of  Mercury  and  probably  Venus.  The  inhibition 
is  favored  by  unequal  hemispheres.  The  Earth  will  lose 
its  rotation  with  the  eastern  hemisphere  approximating 
the  Sun.  The  satellites  have  no  axial  rotation  (from  the 
standpoint  of  their  orbital  centers),  because  of  their 
approximation  to  their  principals  whose  fields  of  force 
inhibit  the  movement.  We  will  further  discuss  this  fact 
when  considering  the  case  of  the  Moon. 

As  the  gravitational  force  radiates  outward  it  is 
gradually  neutralized  by  forces  radiating  from  negative 
matter.  The  radiations  of  the  forces  of  the  solar  system 
as  well  as  the  matter  of  the  system,  in  the  main,  pre- 
serve the  wheel-like  form.  The  negative  matter  of  the 
system  being  driven  outward  by  the  concentrated  lines 
of  force  of  the  Sun  in  part  collects  as  a  common  atmos- 
phere, from  which  radiate  lines  of  force  of  a  diffusive 


SOLAR  SYSTEM — THE  SUN.  45 

character.  These  meet  and  are  continuous  with  the 
solar  lines,  and  thus  they  neutralize  as  do  the  lines  from 
the  differential  poles  of  two  magnets. 

It  is  important  to  note  the  concentrating  effect  of  the 
solar  lines  of  force  on  the  matter  of  the  solar  system. 
It  is  equally  important  to  note  the  diffusive  effect  of  the 
lines  of  force  of  the  common  atmosphere  on  the  matter 
of  the  system.  The  solar  lines  of  force  and  the  atmos- 
pheric lines  of  force  must  be  equal  in  quantity,  opposite 
in  quality,  producing  opposite  results,  and  mutually 
neutralizable.  As  the  radiations  diffuse  according  to  the 
law  of  distance  there  must  be  an  inward  sphere  where 
solar  lines  predominate  and  an  outward  sphere  where 
atmospheric  lines  predominate.  As  the  concentrating 
forces  emanate  from  the  Sun,  and  the  diffusive  forces 
emanate  from  the  common  atmosphere  of  the  system,  it 
is  evident  that  these  forces  overlap  with  no  distinct  line 
of  demarcation.  The  forces,  however,  have  spheres  of 
predominance,  and  the  planets  have  thus  been  classified 
as  the  inner  and  outer  groups. 

Electrolytic  Attraction  and  Repulsion.  The  Sun  is 
an  electrolyte  or  magneto  electrolyte.  The  Sun  is  anal- 
ogous to  an  electrolytic  body  of  water  with  free  oxygen 
at  one  pole  and  free  hydrogen  at  the  other.  Water, 
H20,  is  positive  and  has  mass  attraction.  The  free 
hydrogen  being  positive  reinforces  mass  attraction.  The 
free  oxygen  being  negative  furnishes  a  negative  free 
force,  which,  in  a  clear  field,  will  repel  another  negative 
force.  Fig.  7  represents  the  electrolytic  arrangement 
of  the  Sun.  The  north  pole  being  positive  simply  rein- 
forces solar  mass  attraction.  As  the  south  pole  is 
negative  its  radiations  neutralize  the  free  force  of 
positive  matter,  but  actively  repel  negative  matter.  A 
body  such  as  the  Earth,  revolving  round  a  polar  body 


46  SOLAR  SYSTEM — THE  SUN. 

such  as  the  Sun  of  immensely  superior  forces,  passes 
through  two  main  orbital  phases,  the  character  of  which 
determines  the  form  of  its  orbital  path.  In  this  we  must 
consider  circularity  as  the  normal  orbit.  The  orbital 
phases  of  the  Earth  are  caused  by  the  differential  quali- 
ties of  the  fields  of  force  north  and  south  of  the  plane 
of  the  Sun's  equator.  The  solar  lines  of  force  envelop 
the  Earth  so  completely  that  they  are  the  main  factors 
in  causing  a  contraction  or  dilation  of  the  Earth's  orbit 
from  normal  circularity.  When  north  of  the  Sun's 
equator  the  Earth  is  amidst  positive  lines  and  the  orbit 
contracts,  when  south  it  is  amidst  negative  lines  and 
the  orbit  dilates.  We  have,  however,  to  consider  that 
the  momentum  of  the  revolving  body  tends  to  ex- 
pand its  orbit.  We  will  hereafter  consider  the  modifi- 
cation of  the  Earth's  orbit  by  the  planet's  forces  differ- 
entially reacting  with  the  solar  fields  of  force.  It  will 
be  observed  that  the  plane  of  the  solar  equator  divides 
the  fields  of  polar  forces,  and  this  division  will  be  made 
plain  when  we  discuss  the  problems  of  cometary  bodies. 

Heat  and  Light.  This  energy  principally  emanates 
from  the  equatorial  regions  of  the  Sun.  It  is  doubtful 
if  much  heat  or  light  radiates  from  the  solar  body 
north  or  south  of  the  regions  of  Sun  spots.  Fig.  28  is 
significant  of  this  fact.  We  have  elsewhere  followed  the 
cycle  of  energy:  From  the  Sun  as  heat  and  light  to 
the  planets,  there  transformed  to  electric  energy  and 
thus  returned  to  the  Sun.  If  the  energy  from  the 
planets  were  cut  off  from  the  Sun  his  radiations  would 
be  as  effectually  quelched  as  the  light  of  a  candle  by 
snuffing. 

This  energy  has  some  repelling  force  on  bodies  on 
which  it  is  incident.  This  fact  has  been  raised  in  im- 
portance to  account  for  certain  repelling  influences  of 


SOLAR  SYSTEM — THE  SUN.  47 

the  forces  of  the  Sun.  The  position  thus  given  it  cannot 
be  sustained.  Thermic  energy,  however,  produces  im- 
portant results  in  as  much  as  it  diffuses  positive  ele- 
ments. If  Mercury  has  any  atmosphere  it  is  composed 
of  a  positive  gas  such  as  hydrogen;  the  high  albedo  of 
Venus  is  likely  owing  to  the  accumulation  of  hydrogen 
gas  in  the  upper  atmosphere  of  that  planet,  that  gas 
being  diffused  by  the  solar  heat,  and  by  such  heat  kept 
from  uniting  with  oxygen.  It  will  be  observed  that 
solar  heat  thus  opposes  the  concentrating  action  of  solar 
gravitation. 

It  is  well  to  mark  the  fact  that  the  solar  heat  and 
light  constitute  an  arm  of  a  cycle  of  energy  which  con- 
verts a  planet  and  the  Sun  into  a  double  thermo  electric 
cell  (Pig.  7). 

Luminous  radiations  probably  extend  a  greater  dis- 
tance into  space  than  any  other  force.  The  relation  of 
heat  and  light  to  electric  currents,  however,  must  not  be 
forgotten,  and  it  is  likely  that  a  delicate  instrument 
might  convert  the  light  of  a  distant  star  into  electricity. 
No  natural  difference  of  potential  is  presented  to  the 
energy  of  a  star  by  the  solar  system,  hence  no  motory 
influence  can  be  exerted  between  solar  systems.  Kinetic 
energy  is  intrinsic  to  solar  systems. 

The  Electric  Currents.  The  electric  currents  of  the 
Sun  are  the  revolutionary  forces  of  the  solar  system. 
We  have  previously  formulated  the  law  of  induced 
revolution:  "Facing  an  approaching  positive,  or  reced- 
ing negative,  primary  current,  a  positive  force  respond- 
ing to  the  induction  rotates  from  right  to  left,  and  a 
negative  force  responding  to  the  induction  rotates  from 
left  to  right,  in  the  upper  segment  of  the  cycle." 

We  must  note  the  advantageous  position  assumed  by 
positive  matter  in  being  acted  upon  by  a  central  force. 
A  magnet  within  an  electric  field  follows  its  positive 


48  SOLAR  SYSTEM — THE  SUN. 

pole.  A  body  even  when  possessing  a  negative  free 
force  develops  a  positive  pole  which  may  direct  its 
motion.  When  a  body  is  predominately  negative  it  then 
follows  negative  direction.  A  bound  negative  force  as 
in  the  case  of  the  south  pole  of  a  magnet  strains  to 
move  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the  positive 
force.  When  the  forces  are  free  of  each  other's  influence 
they  follow  opposite  directions,  as  in  the  induced  electric 
current.  In  the  latter  case  the  ether  molecules  are  dis- 
sociated just  as  if  the  magnetic  molecules  were  divided 
into  poles. 

The  law  then  denotes  that  within  an  induction  field 
positive  and  negative  ultimates  are  placed  under  a 
strain  which  impels  them  in  different  directions. 

Now  let  us  mentally  stand  off  the  north  pole  of  the 
Sun,  so  that  we  can  take  a  general  view  of  the  solar 
system.  We  see  Mercury  and  all  the  planets  revolving 
round  the  Sun  from  right  to  left  in  the  upper  semi- 
circle (Figs.  6,  14)  ;  and  we  see  from  Fig.  7  that  the 
negative  current  of  the  solar  body  is  receding  and  the 
positive  current  approaching  when  we  occupy  this 
relative  position.  The  positive  bodies  of  the  solar  sys- 
tem are  therefore  obeying  the  same  law  as  positive 
matter  within  the  induction  field  of  an  electrified  wire. 

How  does  the  negative  matter  of  the  system  act?  If 
bound  to  positive  matter  such  as  the  Earth's  atmos- 
phere, it  will  be  dragged  along  by  the  positive  matter 
as  in  the  case  of  the  negative  pole  of  a  magnet.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  sufficiently  free  from  positive  matter  as 
in  the  faradic  current,  it  will  seek  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. 

We  have  shown  that  within  the  solar  induction  field 
negative  matter  is  squeezed  out  by  the  concentration  of 
the  field.  Negative  matter  is  also  squeezed  out  of  con- 


SOLAR  SYSTEM — THE  SUN.  49 

centrated  fields  surrounding  planets.  We  find  the 
Moon  a  positive  body  holding  an  equilibrated  position 
within  the  solar  induction  field,  and  having  the  orbital 
direction  of  its  principal.  It  obeys  the  revolutionary 
law  of  positive  matter.  Jupiter  is  a  less  positive  body 
than  the  Earth  because  it  occupies  a  less  concentrative 
solar  field.  It  has  a  number  of  satellites,  each  one  no 
doubt  occupying  an  equilibrated  position.  According 
to  the  law  of  concentration  we  expect  to  find  evidence 
of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  being  more  diffused  and 
more  negative  in  direct  proportion  to  their  distance 
from  Jupiter.  Here  is  the  evidence:  All  the  satellites 
of  Jupiter  revolve  directly,  thus  obeying  the  law  of 
positive  revolution,  except  the  outer  one,  which  has  a 
reverse  movement,  thus  obeying  the  law  of  negative 
revolution.  The  satellites  of  Saturn  behave  in  a  similar 
manner  to  those  of  Jupiter,  the  outer  one  revolving  re- 
versely. 

In  the  case  of  Uranus  the  proposition  is  modified. 
The  solar  induction  field  is  more  attenuated,  and  the 
planet  is  more  negative  and  diffused.  Hence  the 
planet's  induction  field  is  less  concentrated.  Hence  the 
equilibration  of  the  satellites  admits  of  a  construction 
more  negative  than  the  corresponding  satellites  of 
Jupiter  or  Saturn.  The  four  satellites  of  Uranus  obey 
the  law  of  negative  revolution. 

A  further  modification  exists  in  the  case  of  Nep- 
tune. Here  there  is  a  greater  negative  construction 
almost  approaching  cometary  conditions.  The  planet, 
however,  obeys  the  law  of  positive  revolution,  owing  to 
the  relatively  advantageous  placement  of  positive  mat- 
ter. The  satellite,  as  might  be  expected,  revolves  re- 
versely to  positive  revolution.  The  axial  rotation  of 
Neptune  is  retrograde,  and  this  is  a  most  interesting 
fact. 


50  SOLAR  SYSTEM — THE  SUN. 

Outward  from  Neptune  the  lines  of  force  traversing 
the  solar  induction  field  are  extremely  attenuated. 
Positive  matter  has  lost  its  revolutionary  supremacy 
and  here  negative  matter  claims  dominion.  No  cloud 
ever  interferes  with  the  true  transparency  of  the  at- 
mosphere of  the  solar  system,  even  the  spectroscope 
will  ever  fail  to  detect  it.  However,  the  quantity  of 
matter  diffused  beyond  the  orbit  of  Neptune  must  be 
very  large  and  probably  covers  a  space  equal  to  or 
greater  than  that  embraced  within  the  orbit  of  Neptune. 
Nevertheless,  the  electric  currents  of  the  Sun  direct 
this  matter  in  its  orbital  revolution  and  the  direction  is 
reverse  to  that  of  the  planets.  When  we  mentally  stand 
to  the  north  of  the  solar  system  the  atmosphere  of  the 
system  revolves  from  left  to  right  in  its  upper  semi- 
circle (Fig.  6). 

It  is  now  clear  why  Neptune  has  a  retrograde  axial 
rotation.  The  other  planets  have  a  rotatory  direction 
the  same  as  a  ball  rolling  on  the  floor,  and  Neptune  has 
a  rotatory  direction  the  same  as  a  ball  rolling  on  the 
ceiling.  The  positive  lines  of  force  of  the  Sun  direct 
the  former,  and  the  negative  lines  of  force  from  the 
common  atmosphere  direct  the  latter. 

The  lines  demarcating  the  spheres  of  influence  of  the 
forces  of  the  solar  system  differentiate  according  to  the 
character  of  the  force.  (1)  The  spheres  of  solar  lineal 
attraction  and  lineal  repulsion  are  divided  by  the  plane 
of  the  solar  equator.  (2)  The  sphere  of  physical  con- 
centrativeness  and  the  sphere  of  physical  diffusibility 
are  divided  by  a  line  demarcating  the  inner  from  the 
outer  planets.  These,  however,  are  imperfect  demar- 
cations. (3)  The  sphere  of  influence  of  the  electric 
currents  of  the  Sun  uniformly  extend  throughout  the 
whole  system,  only  diffusing,  and  this  is  the  case  with 
solar  heat  and  light. 


SOLAR  SYSTEM — THE  SUN.  51 

A  line  dividing  the  revolutionary  directions  of  posi- 
tive and  negative  matter  may  be  said  to  exist  between 
the  planets  and  the  common  atmosphere,  although  with- 
in this  line  the  axial  rotation  of  Neptune,  and  the 
orbital  revolutions  of  some  satellites  and  comets  have 
the  direction  of  negative  matter. 

The  Sun  dominates  the  system.  His  influence  extends 
to  the  remote  regions  beyond  Neptune,  although  here 
his  lines  of  force  are  weak  and  the  atmospheric  lines 
are  strong.  The  negative  force  disputes  his  concen- 
trating influence  and  dictates  by  negative  resistance 
physical  states  of  matter,  but  as  regards  kinetic  force 
he  still  holds  sway  and  his  authority  is  not  even  dis- 
puted. The  Sun  dominates  motion,  and  he  also  domi- 
nates all  change,  for  each  part  of  the  system  beyond 
his  mass  is  in  equilibrium  and  is  incapable  of  further 
change  through  the  initiation  of  its  own  forces.  The 
Sun  is  positive  or  cation  in  mass  and  is  positive  and 
aggressive  in  character;  the  common  atmosphere  of 
the  system  is  negative  or  anion  in  mass  and  is  negative 
and  resistant  in  character.  Nevertheless,  the  Sun  is  as 
much  dependent  on  the  planetary  part  of  the  system  for 
his  energy  as  the  planets  are  on  him  for  their  energies. 
The  Sun,  however,  contains  in  the  main  the  stored 
energy  of  the  system;  the  energies  of  the  planets  are 
principally  induced. 

The  computation  of  the  mass  and  density  of  the  Sun 
is  based  on  the  present  accepted  conception  of  gravi- 
tation. According  to  our  deductions  gravitation  is 
limited  to  one-half  of  the  matter  of  the  universe.  It  is 
evident  that  if  the  concentrativeness  of  positive  matter 
is  the  fundamental  principle  of  gravitation  the  com- 
putation of  mass  and  density  in  general  must  be  some- 
what wide  of  the  mark. 


52  SOLAR  SYSTEM — THE  SUN. 

The  Sun's  axis  is  the  center  of  the  solar  system.  Its 
direction  indicates  the  true  north  and  south  as  regards 
the  system,  and  its  plane  cuts  the  system  into  two  equal 
parts.  The  equatorial  plane  of  the  Sun  also  divides  the 
solar  system  into  two  equal  parts.  These  two  planes 
should  be  the  landmarks  which  should  relatively  in- 
dicate the  localization  of  all  other  points  within  the 
system.  This  does  not  exclude  the  ecliptic.  The  solar 
planes  in  their  relations  to  the  parts  of  the  system  may 
be  considered  as  invariable.  The  ecliptic  is  variable. 
The  solar  planes  bear  a  direct  causal  relation  to  the 
lines  of  the  universe,  the  ecliptic  bears  a  direct  causal 
relation  to  the  solar  planes.  The  ecliptic  has  an  ob- 
liquity of  about  seven  and  one-half  degrees.  The  solar 
planes  are  straight.  That  the  lines  and  planes  per- 
taining to  the  solar  system  should  be  regarded  as  related 
to  the  ecliptic  is  an  inherited  mark  of  the  Ptolemaic 
conception  of  cosmical  arrangement. 

Photosphere.  The  photosphere  is  mainly  composed  of 
matter  whose  forces  tend  toward  the  solid  state,  kept 
in  the  liquid  or  gaseous  form  by  heat.  The  photosphere 
is  the  product  of  one  vast  volcano  which  is  normal  and 
general  to  the  Sun's  surface  between  45°  north  and  45° 
south  latitude.  The  volcanic  condition  is  rare  as  well 
as  abnormal — at  least  at  present — to  the  Earth's  sur- 
face. If  it  be  supposed  that  the  material  of  the  strati- 
fied rocks  covering  the  Earth  is  in  a  molten  state,  caused 
by  heat  generated  at  innumerable  foci  within  the  un- 
stratified  rocks,  and  that  this  heat  is  the  energy  derived 
from  electric  currents  selectively  passing  through  the 
unstratified  rocks,  part  of  which  is  also  rendered  molten, 
we  may  gain  a  conception  of  what  is  occurring  within 
the  photosphere  and  its  relation  to  the  interior  of  the 
Sun. 


SOLAR  SYSTEM — THE  SUN.  53 

Eotation  of  the  photosphere  is  demonstrated  by  the 
movement  of  Sun  spots.  In  the  equatorial  zone  the 
rotatory  period  is  about  25  days,  while  at  the  latitude  of 
40°  the  period  is  27  days.  In  a  solid  body,  such  as  the 
Earth,  this  differential  rotation  is  absent,  although  it 
may  be  present  in  its  atmosphere.  It  manifests  in 
Jupiter,  and  may  be  present  in  all  the  outer  planets. 
Differential  rotation  appears  to  have  two  causal  factors : 
(1)  The  intensity  of  the  free  force  of  the  particle 
acted  upon.  This,  in  the  case  of  the  photosphere  and 
planets,  means  the  intensity  of  the  positive  force  re- 
sponding to  the  induction.  This  factor  is  more  par- 
ticularly shown  in  the  case  of  the  rotatory  periods  of 
the  belts  of  Jupiter.  (2)  The  polar  forces  of  a  body, 
being  opposed  to  the  current  forces,  must  exercise  an 
inhibitory  action  on  the  currents  and  their  effects.  This 
is  demonstrable  by  passing  a  current  through  an  elec- 
trolyte, the  ions  accumulating  at  the  poles  decreasing 
the  primary  current.  Thus  rotatory  motion  will  be  in- 
versely proportional  to  the  retarding  polar  force,  or 
directly  proportional  to  the  distance  from  the  poles. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
The  Great  Cycle. 

The  Sun  grows.  The  conception  brings  into  view  law, 
order,  system,  absolute  conclusions,  certainty,  evolution, 
cyclic  change,  death  only  to  a  phase.  The  Sun  con- 
tracts. The  kaleidoscopic  views  are  accident,  catas- 
trophe, cataclysm,  cosmic  complexity,  awe,  doubt,  death, 
accidental  awakening. 

The  Sun  grows.  Charged  ions  emanating  from  the 
poles  of  the  planets  and  deposited  at  the  poles  of  the 
Sun  build  up  his  mass,  increase  his  forces,  feed  his 
energies,  and  extend  and  intensify  his  dominion  over 
the  positive  or  cation  matter  of  the  system.  The  results 
in  the  solar  body  may  be  expressed  in  the  term  ion- 
ization.  Step  by  step  the  mass  of  the  Sun  extends  its 
boundaries  until  the  whole  system  is  ionized.  Concur- 
rently, the  changes  occurring  as  regards  the  planets  are 
cationization,  contraction  of  their  orbits,  decrease  of 
their  masses,  and  finally  absorption  by  the  Sun.  The 
changes  occurring  in  the  common  atmosphere  of  the 
system  are  increase  of  quantity,  and  enlargement  of 
sphere.  The  atmosphere  will  first  of  all  be  pushed  out 
during  the  period  of  planet  building.  When  the  last 
planet  has  been  formed  and  when  in  its  situation  it  has 
corresponded  to  Bode's  law,  then  as  the  orbit  of  this 
planet  contracts  the  inner  boundary  of  the  common 
atmosphere  will  also  contract.  The  last  planet  of  the 
system,  when  it  is  absorbed  by  the  Sun,  may  have  an 
orbit  corresponding  with  that  of  Jupiter  or  that  of 
Saturn.  When  the  last  planet  is  absorbed  by  the  Sun 
the  Sun  will  have  lost  his  identity.  A  dark  mass  of 
gaseous  matter  revolves  in  space  by  its  momentum. 


THE  ^rREAT  CYCLE.  55 

There  are  no  electric  currents.  It  is  nebulous.  There 
is,  however,  a  solid  condensation  at  its  center,  the 
portion  of  the  former  Sun  specially  endowed  with  the 
property  of  electric  conductivity.  There  is  also  an 
electrolytic  polarity  which  constitutes  the  north  and 
south.  Matter  has  reached  the  highest  degree  of  diffusi- 
bility — the  nebulous  phase  of  the  Great  Cycle  of  solar 
systems. 

There  is,  however,  an  intimate  division  in  this  nebu- 
losity which  is  portrayed  in  the  state  of  matter  of  a 
partial  vacuum  tube  as  manifested  by  electrification.  In 
an  extreme  partial  vacuum  there  are  two  forms  of 
ponderable  matter,  the  anion  and  cation  particles,  show- 
ing a  condition  of  ultimate  tenuity.  Matter  in  a  nebu- 
lous star  system  may  be  made  up  largely  of  the  same 
particles  mainly  divided  into  two  spheres.  The  anion 
sphere  being  an  extension  of  the  negative  atmosphere 
or  rim  of  the  system,  and  the  cation  sphere  being  an 
extension  of  the  Sun  or  center  of  the  system.  The 
anion  sphere  covers  an  immensity  of  space,  whilst  the 
cation  sphere  is  relatively  small.  The  energy  of  the 
system  resides  in  positive  or  cation  ionization. 

In  this  work  we  have  attempted  briefly  to  trace  the 
changing  conditions  of  the  solar  system  from  the  nebu- 
lous state  succeeding  an  ideal  creation  of  matter, 
through  the  various  phases  of  planetary  life,  back  to  the 
nebulous  state.  From  the  succeeding  nebulous  con- 
dition of  the  matter  of  the  solar  system  new  centers  of 
concentration  will  be  evolved,  a  new  cycle  of  physical 
change  will  ensue,  a  new  cycle  of  energy  will  be  in- 
itiated, and  a  new  cycle  of  organic  life  will  manifest. 

The  solar  system  has  marked  time  by  passing  through 
one  great  cycle  of  infinite  time,  and  is  again  the  seat  of 
intelligent  effort.  One  planet,  the  third  from  the  Sun, 
is  in  that  equilibrated  position  which  is  productive  of 


56  ENERGY  OF  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

cell  life.  What  gift  of  prescience  would  the  human 
mind  of  today  possess  if  it  could  picture  the  geography, 
the  physical  forms  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  life, 
and  the  civilization  of  the  higher  life  of  that  planet  as 
it  passes  through  the  evolutionary  era  corresponding  to 
our  own,  and  only  ahead  one  turn  of  the  wheel  in  the 
Great  Cycle.  Will  you  and  I  be  there? 


THE  ENERGY  OF  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

Under  the  quantitative  relation  of  all  matter  and  all 
force  to  all  space  each  solar  system,  by  virtue  of  an 
induction  field,  is  in  equilibrium  as  regards  its  cosmic 
environment.  The  energy  which  imparts  motion  to 
ponderable  bodies  is  not  interstellar  but  confined  to 
cycles  which  are  complete  within  each  system.  We  can 
conceive  that  the  forces  within  the  solar  system  are  in 
equilibrium  with  the  exception  of  an  unequilibrated 
fraction  which  is  seeking  equilibrium.  This  fraction  is 
the  kinetic  energy  of  the  system. 

The  energy  conditions  of  the  solar  system  may  be 
understood  by  a  study  of  Fig.  3. 

(1)  The  Concentr 'ability  of  Positive  Force.  In  the 
immense  accumulation  of  cation  elements  held  in  dif- 
fusion resides  the  potential  energy  of  solar  radiations 
of  heat.  As  simple  radiant  energy  light  may  be  con- 
sidered on  the  basis  of  its  thermic  value,  and  hence 
embraced  under  the  term  heat.  It  is  the  tendency  of 
the  cation  elements  to  contract  which  impels  the  ether 
to  radiate  as  heat.  Yet  the  elements  of  the  solar  body 
do  not  contract,  because  the  heat  transformed  from 
electricity  diffuses  the  cation  matter.  This  energy  is  in 
the  main  returned  to  the  Sun,  but  some  of  it  has  been, 
or  is  being  stored  in  the  planets,  chiefly  Venus,  the 


ENERGY  OF  SOLAR  SYSTEM.  57 

Earth  and  Mars,  as  chemical  energy  such  as  found  in 
organic  matter.  The  solar  energy  radiates  chiefly  along 
the  plane  of  the  equator  of  the  Sun,  some  of  it,  however, 
passes  beyond  our  star-space,  the  Sun  thus  manifesting 
beyond  as  a  twinkling  star.  At  the  boundary  of  our 
star-space  the  outgoing  and  incoming  radiations  are 
equal,  so  that  the  solar  system  gains  exactly  as  much 
energy  as  it  loses.  Within  the  boundary  of  the  system 
the  sum  of  the  potential  and  kinetic  energies  never 
varies.  The  Sun  cannot  give  out  more  energy  than 
he  receives,  and  each  polar  body  within  the  solar  sys- 
tem is  engaged  in  sending  back  what  it  receives. 

Solar  radiant  energy  non-incident  to  a  polar  body 
will  meet  resistance  in  fields  preoccupied  by  radiations 
from  other  systems.  It  is  evident  that  resistance  to  the 
escape  of  energy  from  the  system  increases  the  pressure 
within  the  system,  hence  from  this  cause  the  pressure 
at  the  surface  of  polar  bodies  is  increased.  The  planets 
therefore,  although  only  directly  catching  a  small 
amount  of  the  solar  radiant  energy,  yet  being  in  the 
midst  of  a  pressure  caused  by  the  resistance  to  non- 
incident  radiations,  clearly,  as  polar  bodies,  will  trans- 
form this  pressure  into  electric  force,  and  thus  the 
energy  will  be  returned  to  the  Sun. 

The  diffusion  of  cation  elements  in  the  body  of  the 
Sun  as  a  potential  force  is  unique  as  regards  the  solar 
system.  Neither  is  there  any  analogous  compression  of 
negative  matter.  The  Sun  is  the  only  self-luminous 
body  within  the  system  and  the  solar  body  alone 
possesses  a  potential  energy  in  the  diffusion  of  its  ele- 
ments. Other  bodies  reflect  solar  energy,  or  absorb  and 
then  emit  it. 

(2)  Free  Cation  Force.  The  free  cation  force  of 
the  Sun  includes  the  free  force  of  his  north  pole  and  of 


58  ENERGY  OF  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

his  general  mass;  only  excepting  his  south  polar  force. 
It  radiates  lines  of  force  which  concentrate  the  positive 
matter  of  the  system,  squeeze  out  negative  matter,  and 
contract  the  orbits  of  planetary  and  cometary  bodies. 
The  free  cation  forces  of  planetary  bodies  radiate  in- 
dependent lines  of  force  which  act  on  their  respective 
satellites,  and  contract  their  orbits. 

(3)  Free  Anion  Force.     The  free  force  of  the  south 
pole  of  the  Sun  is  negative  in  quality.    It  radiates  lines 
of  force  which    directly  repel  the  negative  matter  of  the 
system  and  dilates  the  orbits  of  planetary  and  cometary 
bodies.    The  free  forces  of  the  south  poles  of  the  planet- 
ary bodies  dilate  the  orbits  of  their  respective  satellites. 
The  free  negative  force  of  the  common  atmosphere  of 
the  system  radiate  lines  of  force  which  have  an  expand- 
ing influence  over  the  negative  matter  of  the  system. 
These  lines  of  force  may  exercise  a  repelling  influence 
on  the  tail  of  a  comet  as  it  approaches  the  Sun. 

(4)  The  Diff usability  of  Anion  Force.     The  normal 
position   of  negative  matter   is   circumferential   as   the 
normal  position  of  positive  matter  is  central.     In  the 
Sun,  however,  we  find  positive  matter  held  in  a  diffused 
state,  and  hence  possessing  potential  energy.     No  such 
corresponding  energy  is   possessed  by   the   rim,   which 
would  be  in  the  nature  of  a  compression.     The  negative 
matter    of   the    common    atmosphere    is    diffused    to    a 
point  of  equilibrium,  and  hence  there  is  no  storage  of 
energy.     Probably  there  are  no  qualitative  changes,  ex- 
cept such  as  are  induced  by  solar  energy,  occurring  in 
this    circumferential    band    of    matter,    and    it    simply 
stands  guard  over  the  more  active  center.     Anions  are 
dragged   towards   the    center   of   the    system   by    their 
physical  union  with  cations,  acquire  energy  which  be- 
comes active  by  change  of  relative  position,   as  mark 


ENERGY  OF  SOLAR  SYSTEM.  59 

the  repulsion  between  a  comet  or  a  planetary  south  pole 
and  the  south  pole  of  the  Sun. 

(5)  The  Strain  to  Neutralize  by  Maximum  Contact 
and  at  Minimum  Distance.  As  positive  and  negative 
electric  currents  energy  is  generated  by  the  difference  of 
potential  of  the  planetary  poles.  There  is  also  the  im- 
molecular  and  mass  strain  of  positive  matter  forming  the 
solid  portions  of  planets,  but  this  is  overcome  by  a 
blanket  of  concentrative  force  thrown  over  the  planet- 
ary bodies  by  the  Sun,  and  hence  is  not  independent 
energy. 

Besides  these  there  are  strains  of  polarized  media 
induced  by  the  several  primary  forces.  No  doubt 
chemical  action  plays  an  important  part  in  the  con- 
struction of  planetary  masses,  but  synthetic  reactions 
only  occur  between  positive  and  negative  elements  when 
they  are  brought  in  contact  by  ponderable  pressure. 

The  energy  of  the  system  is  essentially  the  potential 
energy  of  the  Sun.  A  variable  portion  of  the  radiant 
energy  of  the  Sun  is  stored  in  the  planets.  The  reddish 
luminosity  of  Jupiter  is  absorbed  solar  energy.  The 
electric  currents  of  the  planets  are  solar  energy  re- 
turning to  its  source.  Chemical  energies  stored  in 
organic  matter  in  the  three  inner  planets  named  have 
been  lent  by  the  Sun  for  a  longer  period.  Mercury  has 
probably  returned  this  energy  to  its  giver.  The  planets 
have  an  independent  potential  energy  in  their  polarities 
which  enables  the  radiant  energy  of  the  Sun  to  be  re- 
turned to  him. 

This  pictures  the  energy  of  the  system  as  it  stands  at 
present.  As  the  Sun  grows  the  positive  matter  of  the 
proximate  planets  is  ionized  and  is  added  to  the  solar 
body,  and  by  this  process  additional  energy  is  stored 
in  the  solar  mass.  By  their  polar  radiations  the  planets 


60  ENERGY  OF  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

may  partially  lose  their  polarities,  and  by  the  concen- 
trativeness  of  solar  lines  of  force  they  lose  a  large 
portion  of  their  negative  matter,  so  that  when  the 
crises  come  and  they  are  one  by  one  engulfed  by  the 
solar  body  they  are  chiefly  cation  cinders. 

In  the  transitional  stage  when  the  solar  system  is  one 
continuous  mass  of  nebulous  matter  the  potential  energy 
still  resides  in  the  diffused  positive  matter.  The  radiat- 
ing energy  has  been  reduced  to  a  minimum,  but  the 
stored  energy  in  cation  matter  has  reached  its  maximum. 
The  thermo  electric  cycle  is  broken  and  the  nebulous 
mass  continues  to  revolve  by  its  momentum.  Then  the 
cation  matter  of  the  central  parts  of  the  system  con- 
tracts, a  new  and  smaller  Sun  is  evolved,  a  new  planet 
is  formed  proximate  to  the  solar  body,  and  a  new  cycle 
of  energy  springs  into  existence.  It  is  then  that  elec- 
tricity is  born  anew. 

The  energies  of  the  solar  system  are  a  play  between 
the  forces  as  indicated  in  Fig.  3.  They  consist  of  two 
cycles:  The  one  is  radiant  and  partakes  of  a  thermo- 
electro-chemical  character;  the  other  is  principally 
static,  only  inductively  radiant,  and  mainly  partakes 
of  a  physical  character.  Positive  matter  in  diffusion 
contracts,  thus  causing  a  physical  disturbance  in  ether 
(heat),  this  disturbance  being  converted  into  a  strain  to 
neutralize  at  minimum  distance  (electric  matter),  which 
finds  equilibrium  at  the  expense  of  diffusion  or  ion- 
ization  of  positive  matter,  thus  completing  a  cycle. 
Such  is  the  play  of  the  forces,  an  unequilibrium  seek- 
ing equilibrium,  and  finding  it  by  producing  another 
unequilibrium  of  equal  value. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  work  we  assumed  a  creation 
of  electric  matter  of  specific  value.  We  confidently 
believe  that  the  created  matter  might  be  of  any  possible 


ENERGY  OP  SOLAR  SYSTEM.  61 

physical  form,  and  promiscuously  thrown  into  the  space 
as  a  solid,  liquid,  gaseous  or  ether  body;  or  as  any 
mixture  of  these. which  may  appeal  to  the  imagination, 
and  yet  given  correct  quantities,  and  forces  as  desig- 
nated, it  can  be  shown  how  this  matter,  formless  and 
orderless,  would  simply  by  its  own  inherent  character 
arrange  itself  into  a  solar  system,  and  enter  into  a 
cyclic  movement  of  which  the  present  state  of  the  solar 
system  is  a  phase. 

The  principle  of  the  conservation  of  energy  has  been 
stated  thus:  Energy  is  transformed,  not  created,  nor 
annihilated.  That  is,  the  quantity  of  the  energy  of  the 
universe  is  constant.  We  can  go  further  and  affirm 
that  the  quantity  of  the  energy  of  the  solar  system  is 
constant.  If  it  were  otherwise  the  solar  system  would 
lose  its  integrity  as  a  celestial  unit.  If  the  matter  of 
the  universe  was  pitched  into  a  space  haphazardly  the 
resulting  solar  systems  would  each  have  energy  which 
would  remain  constant  in  quantity.  The  energy  of  the 
solar  system  forms  a  perpetual  motion.  This  can  only 
occur  when  the  sphere  of  action  is  a  cosmic  unit — self- 
neutralizable  and  independently  isolated.  Perpetual 
motion  is  impossible  as  far  as  a  fraction  of  a  unit  is 
concerned — say  the  Earth.  The  energy  of  the  system 
in  its  cyclic  movements  meets  resistance,  and  is  ex- 
pended according  to  the  work  done,  but  this  merely 
means  transformation,  and  as  the  action  occurs  within 
the  system  the  energy  is  conserved  and  nothing  is  lost. 
Perpetual  motion  is  corollary  to  conservation  of  energy, 
and  the  two  must  have  unit  fields.  The  perpetual 
motion  of  the  solar  system  is  sequential  to  the  fund- 
amental properties  of  matter  as  defined — concentrative- 
ness  of  positives,  diffusibility  of  negatives,  and  the 
mutual  strain  to  neutralize  at  minimum  distance  and 


62  TEMPERATURE. 

by  maximum  contact.  Possessing  these  properties  mov- 
ing matter  seeks  rest,  but  can  only  find  it  by  setting 
other  matter  in  motion.  Given  the  properties  as 
stated,  and  the  quantitative  relation  to  all  space  as  pre- 
viously defined,  under  no  relative  placement,  state,  or 
condition,  can  all  the  matter  of  the  universe  be  in 
equilibrium  at  one  time. 


TEMPERATURE. 

The  conception  of  temperature  is  misleading.  At  the 
present  period  of  the  evolution  of  our  system  the  Sun 
is  the  only  body  which  is  really  at  a  high  temperature. 
Let  us  explain :  A  thermometer  consisting  of  a  mercury 
column  placed  at  the  solar  surface  would  immediately 
be  dissolved  by  the  absorption  of  heat,  because  the 
matter  of  the  Sun  is  above  thermic  equilibrium.  Now 
place  this  same  column  of  mercury  at  the  surface  of  one 
of  the  outer  planets,  say  Neptune.  It  is  true  that  the 
thermometer  would  indicate  a  condition  similar  to  a 
high  temperature,  but  not  because  the  matter  of  the 
planet  is  above  thermic  equilibrium  but  because  the 
lines  radiating  from  the  static  forces  of  the  Sun  are  so 
diffused  that  the  atoms  of  mercury  would  dissociate 
by  their  intrinsic  forces,  and  in  doing  so  the  mercury 
would  absorb  ether  from  the  surrounding  matter. 
Matter  is  only  above  thermic  equilibrium  when  it  in- 
trinsically possesses  sunicient  contractile  power  to 
squeeze  out  heat,  and  this  contractile  property  is  only 
possessed  by  positive  matter  above  diffusive  equilibra- 
tion. There  was  a  time  when  planetary  matter  es- 
pecially in  the  inner  planets,  was  above  this  equili- 
brated point,  and  hence  consolidation  took  place  by  their 


TEMPERATURE.  63 

inherent  forces.  Beyond  this  point  they  are  held  to- 
gether by  the  concentrating  lines  emanating  from  the 
static  forces  of  the  Sun.  The  variation  of  thermic 
equilibrium  within  the  solar  system  is  best  illustrated 
by  a  cometary  body.  It  is  probable  that  a  cometary 
mass  possesses  no  intrinsic  contractile  power,  and  that 
the  changes  are  altogether  produced  by  the  solar  forces. 
Hence  cometary  matter  is  constantly  in  thermic  equi- 
librium. Nevertheless,  as  it  approaches  the  Sun  the 
matter  contracts  and  radiates  heat  or  eliminates  nega- 
tive gases  which  absorb  it,  and  thus  maintains  its 
thermic  equilibrium,  until  at  perihelion  there  may  be 
considerable  consolidation.  A  comet  is  just  as  hot  at 
aphelion  as  at  perihelion,  as  measured  by  the  surround- 
ing equilibrium.  Its  elements  become  more  diffused, 
possess  more  intermolecular  ether,  and  assume  con- 
ditions somewhat  similar  to  the  thermic  state  as  it 
passes  into  the  cold  of  space  simply  by  its  own  in- 
trinsic forces  which  are  being  relieved  from  the  binding 
influences  of  solar  lines  of  force.  The  measurement  of 
the  differential  temperature  of  the  system  would  re- 
quire a  specific  meter  for  each  planetary  body. 

W'e  must  first  conceive  that  the  solar  system  is  dif- 
ferentially under  the  influence  of  the  gravitational 
forces  of  the  Sun — that  matter  is  differentially  concen- 
trated or  diffused  according  to  the  distance  from  the 
Sun.  We  must  also  conceive  that  the  forces  of  diffusion 
produce  effects  simulating  those  of  heat.  It  is  evident 
that  if  the  present  heat  of  the  solar  system  were  entirely 
eliminated  the  Sun  would  solidify  instantly,  whilst  the 
outer  planets  would  remain  almost  in  the  conditions  they 
are  now.  Clearly  the  normal  or  zero  of  temperature  must 
be  established  on  the  basis  of  differential  conditions  re- 
sulting from  solar  static  forces,  and  the  variations  from 


•64  TIDAL  AND  OTHER  MOTIONS. 

the  normal  as  being  caused  by  solar  thermic  radiations. 
Temperature  indicates  the  relative  quantity  of  the  inter- 
molecular  ether  whose  locus  depends  directly  or  in- 
directly on  the  solar  thermic  radiations,  as  shown  by  a 
meter  whose  zero  designates  the  equilibrium  at  the 
specific  point  of  the  solar  gravitational  lines  of  force. 
Temperature  denotes  the  intrinsic  contractile  potential 
of  a  substance  as  manifested  by  the  concentrability  of 
positive  matter. 


TIDAL   AND   OTHER   MOTIONS. 

Tidal  Motion  results  from  the  differential  action  of 
the  lines  of  force  of  one  body,  or  more,  on  the  particles 
of  matter  of  another.  The  Sun  and  Moon  thus  act  on 
the  matter  of  the  Earth.  It  is  probable  that  the  Sun's 
current  forces  neutralize  to  some  extent  his  lineal  forces 
as  regards  tidal  action.  The  solar  and  terrestrial  elec- 
tric currents  being  in  opposite  direction  have  a  repellant 
action  on  the  two  bodies  (Fig.  7).  Again  the  solar 
currents  produce  orbital  motion  by  acting  on  the  static 
force  of  the  Earth.  Further,  the  solar  heat  and  light 
have  a  slight  action  on  terrestrial  matter.  All  these 
forces,  no  doubt,  depreciate  the  tidal  action  of  the  Sun. 
In  the  case  of  the  Moon  the  forces  of  neutralization  as 
regards  tidal  action  are  absent.  Hence  the  Moon's 
tidal  action  on  the  Earth  is  relatively  superior  to  that 
of  the  Sun. 

We  must  regard  the  Earth  and  Moon  as  in  an  equili- 
brated position  in  reference  to  the  Sun's  forces;  and 
we  must  regard  the  Earth  and  Moon  as  in  an  equili- 
brated position  in  reference  to  each  other's  forces.  It 
is  thus  made  clear  that  matter  on  the  surface  of  the 


TIDAL  AND  OTHER  MOTIONS.  65 

Earth  proximate  to  the  Sun  or  to  the  Moon  is  relatively 
more  attracted  than  the  main  body.  Terrestrial  matter 
is  thus  disturbed.  The  matter  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  Earth  attempts  to  maintain  the  equilibrium,  and 
has  a  tendency  to  move  in  a  straight  path.  There  are 
thus  induced  a  proximate  and  a  distal  tidal  action. 

Tidal  action  has  been  raised  in  importance  by  being 
considered  as  a  cause  of  loss  of  energy  of  a  system — 
the  solar  system  ages  because  of  tidal  action.  Whether 
this  position  can  be  maintained  by  supposing  a  planet's 
orbital  and  axial  rotatory  movements  as  being  entirely 
due  to  momentum  we  need  not  discuss.  According  to 
our  deductions  the  circular  element  of  a  planet's  orbital 
motion  is  due  to  the  electric  currents  of  the  Sun,  and 
the  planet's  orbital  velocity  is  established  and  main- 
tained by  overcoming  the  deterrent  forces.  It  is  evident 
that  the  only  way  to  lessen  the  velocities  is  to  reduce  or 
overcome  the  inductive  force  of  the  primary  electric 
currents,  or  by  increasing  the  present  or  establishing 
other  deterrent  forces.  If  tidal  action  in  any  way 
reduces  orbital  motion  the  planets'  orbital  velocities 
should  decrease  from  without  inwards.  They  decrease 
from  within  outward,  Mercury  having  the  greatest 
orbital  velocity,  although,  he  is  the  oldest  planet. 
As  long  as  the  mean  distance  of  a  planet  from  the  Sun 
is  maintained  the  inductive  action  of  the  solar  electric 
current  on  a  planet's  motion  will  be  constant,  and  there 
is  no  claim  that  tidal  action  alters  the  distance. 

As  regards  axial  rotation  the  position  is  different.  A 
ball  rolling  on  the  floor  has  an  axial  rotation  because 
the  forward  motion  of  the  under  surface  does  not  over- 
come the  friction  of  the  floor.  Throw  the  same  ball 
through  the  air  and  it  may  not  rotate,  although  the 
gravitational  force  is  the  same  in  both  instances.  It  is 


66  TIDAL  AND  OTHER  MOTIONS. 

clear  that  the  ball  rolls  because  of  friction  and  that 
weight  is  a  subsidiary  element,  for  if  there  were  no 
weight  there  would  be  no  friction.  Now,  all  ponderable 
matter  must  be  capable  of  producing  more  or  less 
friction.  An  ether  perfectly  clear  of  ponderable  lines 
of  force  is  frictionless,  but  lines  of  force  impart  to 
ether  the  properties  of  ponderable  matter,  and  the  lines 
of  force  striking  the  surface  of  a  planet  must  cause 
friction  on  a  moving  planet.  Ether  molecules  joined  by 
lines  of  force  must  require  force  to  part  them. 

A  ball  rolling  on  the  floor  presents  many  elementary 
considerations:  (1)  Impulse;  (2)  friction;  (3)  weight; 
(4)  size;  and  (5)  configuration.  Mark  how  the  planets 
increase  in  their  orbital  velocities  from  without  in- 
wards. Neptune  has  a  velocity  of  3.4  miles  per  second. 
Mercury  23  to  35  miles  per  second.  All  facts  point  to 
a  central  force  driving  the  planets.  There  is  no  break 
in  the  gradual  increase  because  there  is  only  one  causal 
factor  of  modification,  the  distance  from  the  solar  pri- 
mary currents.  Now  mark  the  periods  of  the  axial 
rotations  of  the  planets.  Saturn  and  Jupiter  have 
periods  of  about  ten  hours.  Mars  and  the  Earth  of 
about  twenty-four  hours,  and  Venus  and  Mercury  have 
no  axial  rotation.  It  is  evident  that  orbital  and  axial 
velocities  have  nothing  in  common  as  regards  causes. 
The  orbital  increase  and  the  axial  decrease  as  the  Sun 
is  approached. 

In  the  case  of  planetary  movements  we  cannot  admit 
of  any  initiatory  impulse  as  in  that  of  a  rolling  ball, 
but  the  momentum  is  an  impulse  from  moment  to 
moment.  Friction  as  regards  planets  accord  with  the 
intensity  of  the  lines  of  force,  and  although  it  is  an 
essential  to  rotatory  motion  it  will  not  explain  the 
modification  of  planetary  rotations.  That  intensity  of 
the  solar  lines  of  force  is  a  factor  in  modifying  orbital 


TIDAL  AND  OTHER  MOTIONS.  67 

velocity  is  exemplified  by  the  Moon's  motion.  The  real 
orbit  of  the  Moon  is  round  the  Sun,  and  when  relatively 
proximate  to  the  Sun  the  solar  and  terrestrial  lines  of 
force  by  friction  retard  this  motion.  When  relatively 
distant  from  the  Sun  the  terrestrial  lines  of  force  by 
friction  hasten  the  Moon's  true  orbital  motion  (Fig. 
24).  The  Moon  has  no  true  orbital  motion  round  the 
Earth. 

The  Earth  and  the  Moon  have  orbital  motions  round 
the  Sun  of  the  same  mean  velocity.  It  is  evident  that 
lines  of  force  emanating  from  the  Earth  owing  to  axial 
rotation  move  faster  than  the  mean  velocity  of  the 
Moon  when  the  satellite  is  the  more  distant  from  the 
Sun,  and  slower  when  the  satellite  is  the  nearer  to  the 
Sun.  It  is  thus  clear  that  when  the  Moon  is  the  ex- 
ternal body  she  is  riding  on  lines  as  a  ball  thrown 
on  a  floor  which  has  a  forward  movement  of  greater 
velocity  than  the  ball  as  a  result  of  its  impulse.  Under 
such  conditions  the  Moon  cannot  be  expected  to  rotate, 
except,  indeed,  in  a  retrograde  manner.  When  the 
Moon  is  the  nearer  to  the  Sun  she  is  between  two  sets 
of  lines  of  force  which  mutually  neutralize  as  regards 
rotatory  action. 

The  explanation  of  differential  axial  rotation  of  the 
planets  is  mainly  to  be  found  in  the  form  or  con- 
figuration of  the  planet.  The  change  of  configuration, 
however,  is  not  due  to  tidal  action.  Mark  the  con- 
figuration of  the  outer  planets.  They  have  been  shaped 
by  the  forces  which  produce  motion  and  the  intrinsic 
forces  of  disfiguration  have  not  been  yet  brought  into 
play.  Mars  is  a  small  planet,  the  friction  of  the  solar 
lines  of  force  has  smalL  leverage,  and  hence  a  longer  day 
than  in  the  outer  planets  prevails.  The  Earth  has  in- 
equality of  surface  in  the  shape  of  mountains,  and  the 
eastern  hemisphere  must  be  slightly  heavier  than  the 


68  TIDAL  AND  OTHER  MOTIONS. 

western.  Thus  during  the  Asiatic  forenoon  the  axial 
rotatory  motion  of  the  Earth  must  be  hastened  and 
during  the  afternoon  it  must  be  retarded.  This  varia- 
tion of  velocity  is  extended  in  the  Moon's  orbit.  The 
inequality  of  surface  will  become  more  manifest  by 
the  sinking  of  the  great  Pacific  Ocean,  and  the  relative 
rising  of  the  mountains,  produced  by  the  escape  of  ions 
from  the  poles  of  the  Earth.  The  Earth  will  follow  the 
lead  of  Venus  and  come  to  a  standstill  as  regards  axial 
rotation  with  the  eastern  hemisphere  approximating  the 
Sun. 


CHAPTER  V. 
Earthquakes,  Mountains  and  Volcanoes. 

Earthquakes.  Definition:  Earthquakes  are  mani- 
festations of  unequilibrated  ether  (thermic  waves) 
radiating  from  interior  foci,  which  are  points  of  neu- 
tralization of  electric  conduction  currents  from  the  poles 
of  the  Earth,  the  principal  initiatory  cause  being 
periodical  weakenings  of  the  poles  of  the  Sun,  resulting 
from  ionic  slips  in  the  form  of  convection  currents,  the 
neutralization  of  which  produces  co-ordinate  Sun-spots. 

Mountains,  Volcanoes  and  Earthquakes  are  related 
and  differ  in  causality  as  in  the  following  definitions: 
Earthquakes  are  caused  by  heat  traveling  by  conduc- 
tion or  as  an  ether  mass;  volcanoes  by  heat  traveling 
by  convection;  mountains  by  either  causal  factor  or  by 
all  combined.  The  common  immediate  cause  of  the 
heat  is  the  transformation  of  electric  energy  at  the 
points  of  neutralization  of  polar  or  back  electric  cur- 
rents. The  volcanic  focus  from  which  thermic  radiation 
occurs  must  bear  the  relative  position  to  the  volcano  as 
the  seismic  focus  to  the  locus  of  the  undulatory  emer- 
gence. The  heat  in  all  instances  travels  in  the  direction 
and  by  the  method  of  least  resistance.  The  heat  volatil- 
izes its  medium,  travels  by  convection,  and  emerges  ac- 
companied by  volcanic  manifestations ;  travels  by  con- 
duction and  emerges  as  a  seismic  wave;  or  evolves  as 
an  ether  mass  and  associated  with  other  methods  of 
travel  elevates  the  rocks  to  the  form  of  a  mountain. 
However,  at  the  locus  of  emergence  of  earthquake 
waves  there  are  evidences  showing  how  near  an  earth- 
quake is  to  a  volcano,  such  as  openings  in,  and  melting 


70  EARTHQUAKES. 

of  the  ground  along  the  course  of  the  wave.  Volcanoes 
are  safety-valves  whereby  the  transformed  energy  from 
electric  leakage  escapes.  They  are  the  expressions  of 
excessive  forces  which  have  their  normality  in  mountain 
building. 

In  Fig  7  let  S  represent  the  Sun,  and  B  the  Earth, 
and  let  the  arrows  A  indicate  the  energy,  as  heat  and 
light  emerging  from  the  solar  and  incident  to  the 
terrestrial  body.  Consider  this  energy  as  molecular 
ether  out  of  equilibrium  moving  by  displacement — ether 
set  free  from  molecular  fields,  or  nascent  by  electric 
neutralization,  at  the  solar  fountain  of  energy,  and 
creating  a  radiation-pressure  on  the  Earth's  surface. 
Eelative  to  this  subject  our  first  deduction  is  that  ether 
unequilibrated,  as  solar  energy,  creates  a  radiation-pres- 
sure at  the  surface  of  the  terrestrial  body. 

When  the  locus  of  a  radiation-pressure  is  between 
two  points  which  are  the  seats  of  differential  free  forces 
the  energy  is  transformed  into  electricity.  This  law  is 
universally  coincident  with  the  creation  of  electric 
force.  The  essentiality  of  the  law  is  that  molecular 
ether  is  chemically  dissociated  into  atoms,  when  moving 
under  resistance  as  heat  or  light,  and  under  the  in- 
fluence of  free  forces  qualitatively  different.  If  we 
mentally  grasp  the  fundamental  element  of  the  law  we 
will  at  once  see  that  the  Earth  as  a  polar  body  possesses 
the  difference  of  potentials  essential  to  the  transforma- 
tion of  heat  and  light  into  electric  currents  or  charges. 
Moreover,  the  demonstrable  electric  currents  of  the 
Earth  are  proof  of  the  correctness  of  our  conception. 
The  terrestrial  magneto-electrolyte  is  presented  to  the 
heat  and  light  energy  emanating  from  the  Sun,  converts 
part  of  this  energy  into  electric  currents,  which  passes 
to  its  poles  and  charges  them,  the  north  pole  negatively 


EARTHQUAKES.  71 

and  the  south  pole  positively.  When  the  Earth  is 
regarded  as  a  polar  body  with  differential  ponderable 
polar  forces,  the  north  having  a  free  force  of  cation 
quality  and  the  south  a  free  force  of  anion  quality,  thus 
being  similar  in  the  distribution  of  its  constituents  as  a 
body  placed  between  electric  poles,  it  will  be  apparent 
that  the  positive  current  seeking  the  terrestrial  south 
and  the  negative  seeking  the  terrestrial  north,  is  electric 
matter  and  ponderable  matter  seeking  equilibrium  by 
mutual  neutralization.  The  terrestrial  polar  body  is 
presented  to  solar  energy  (the  pressure  of  unequili- 
brated  ether)  and  transforms  part  of  this  energy  into 
electricity  (chemically  dissociates  the  ether  into  electric 
matter),  which  differentially  charges  the  poles.  This  is 
our  second  deduction.  (Fig.  TB). 

What  becomes  of  the  terrestrial  polar  charges?  They 
neutralize  in  the  direction  of  least  resistance.  We 
have  two  paths  to  consider:  (1)  The  normal  or  inter- 
stellar path,  from  the  poles  of  the  Earth  to  the  poles 
of  the  Sun;  (2)  the  back,  earthquake,  mountain  build- 
ing, or  terrestrial  path,  from  the  poles  of  the  Earth 
equatorialwise.  The  former  is  a  distance  of  about 
ninety-two  million  miles  and  the  latter  about  eight  thou- 
sand miles.  But  distance  indicates  only  one  element 
of  electric  resistance,  an  element  which  may  be  over- 
come by  the  quality  of  the  medium.  Electricity  travels 
miles  along  a  copper  wire  when  a  matter  of  a  few 
inches  of  insulation  separates  the  currents.  The  facts 
of  electrified  partial  vacua  show  that  as  ponderable 
pressure  decreases  the  electric  resistance  decreases,  and 
the  current  increases  up  to  a  critical  point,  when  there 
are  no  more  ions  to  charge.  Again  we  must  consider 
the  important  factor  that  the  poles  of  the  Sun  possess 
attraction  for  the  electric  charges  of  our  planet.  A 
careful  study  of  electricity  convinces  one  that  it  is 


72  EARTHQUAKES. 

selective  as  chemical  action  is  selective.  We  will  show 
that  the  north  pole  of  the  Sun  possesses  particular 
attraction  for  negative  charges,  and  the  south  pole  for 
positive  charges,  which  is  merely  analogous  to  the 
selective  action  of  ponderable  elements,  and  shows  that 
electric  matter  obeys  chemical  laws. 

It  is  acknowledged  that  the  Sun  is  a  polar  body. 
What  does  this  polarity  mean?  Not  that  it  is  simply 
a  magnet,  but  an  immense  electrolyte  (perhaps  a  mag- 
neto-electrolyte), constituted  of  more  positive  ions  than 
negative  at  its  positive  or  north  pole,  and  more 
negative  ions  than  positive  at  its  negative  or  south 
pole.  Mark:  The  immense  positive  free  force  of  the 
north  pole  of  the  Sun  takes  the  negative  electric  charge 
from  the  north  pole  of  the  Earth  just  as  a  strong  metal 
as  potassium  takes  oxygen  from  hydrogen;  and  the  im- 
mense negative  free  force  of  the  south  pole  of  the  Sun 
takes  the  positive  charge  from  the  south  pole  of  the 
Earth  just  as  oxygen  takes  hydrogen  from  carbon 
(Fig.  7). 

What  is  the  character  of  the  currents  which  flow 
from  the  poles  of  the  Earth  to  those  of  the  Sun?  Un- 
doubtedly they  are  convective,  and  are  probably  the 
same  as  alpha  and  beta  energy  of  radio-active  sub- 
stances. Alpha  particles  positively  charged  emanating 
from  the  south  pole  of  the  Earth  are  deposited  on  the 
south  pole  of  the  Sun,  and  beta  particles  negatively 
charged  emanating  from  the  north  pole  of  the  Earth 
are  deposited  on  the  north  pole  of  the  Sun.  Convec- 
tive electric  currents  leave  the  poles  of  the  Earth  (mani- 
festing as  aurora  polaris  (Fig.  9),  and  enter  the  solar 
body  at  its  poles.  This  is  our  third  deduction.  (Fig 
IDC.) 


EARTHQUAKES.  73 

By  deduction  let  us  formulate  a  concept  of  the  solar 
body:  (1)  A  mass  which  as  a  whole  is  positive  in 
quality;  from  which  it  follows  (2)  that  it  has  a 
center  possessing  the  property  of  electric  conductivity; 
(3)  an  electrolytic  body  with  its  ponderable  positive 
pole  pointing  northward  and  its  ponderable  negative 
pole  southward.  A  body  of  water  (this  substance  is 
cation  in  quality)  placed  between  strong  electric  poles 
is  electrolytically  representive  of  the  solar  body.  The 
water  electrolyte  (Fig.  11)  when  examined  is  found 
to  have  free  oxygen  at  one  pole  and  free  hydrogen  at 
the  other.  The  Sun  may  have  a  crystalline  structure, 
like  that  of  the  Earth,  at  his  center,  but  it  is  more 
likely  to  be  metallic.  The  temperature  of  the  central 
Sun  is  not  necessarily  high. 

We  have  said  that  negatively  charged  ions  are  de- 
posited at  the  solar  north  pole,  and  positively  charged 
ions  are  deposited  at  the  solar  south  pole.  *  What  be- 
comes of  these  electric  charges  and  of  the  ions  which 
are  charged?  If  we  study  the  arc-light  (Fig.  8)  we 
will  see  that  we  have  a  miniature  picture  of  the  electric 
energy  passing  from  the  south  pole  of  the  Earth  to  the 
south  of  the  Sun.  It  can  be  demonstrated  that  in  the 
arc-light  (Fig.  8)  positively  charged  ions  pass  through 
the  interspace,  that  the  ions  are  deposited  on  the  nega- 
tive pole,  and  that  the  current  passes  onward.  This 
indicates  what  takes  place  at  the  poles  of  the  Sun — the 
ions  are  there  deposited  and  the  electric  charges  pass 
onward  by  conduction  and  neutralize  within  the  equa- 
torial regions.  The  celestial  pathway  between  the  poles 
of  the  Sun  and  those  of  the  Earth  are  vacua  through 
which  great  arcs  of  energy  (convective  currents)  pass; 
and  ions  are  deposited  at  the  solar  poles  just  as  they 
are  deposited  at  the  cathode  of  the  arc-light. 


74  EARTHQUAKES. 

The  polar  charges  passing  by  conduction  through  the 
central  Sun  and  neutralizing  in  the  equatorial  areas 
are  transformed  into  the  heat  and  light  which  emanate 
from  that  body.  This  is  our  fourth  deduction.  (Fig. 
TGH). 

This  energy,  emanating  from  the  solar  equatorial 
region,  radiates  along  the  solar  equatorial  plane  (ap- 
proximately the  plane  of  the  ecliptic),  and  is  returned 
to  the  Sun  as  electric  energy.  The  Sun  gathers  electric 
energy  and  converts  it  into  heat  and  light;  the  planets 
take  up  the  heat  and  light  and  convert  their  energy 
into  electricity.  The  Sun  is  a  primary  electrolyte 
(Fig.  11) ;  the  Earth  is  a  magneto-electrolyte;  the  Sun 
absorbs  energy  at  its  poles  and  emits  energy  v  at  its 
equator;  the  Earth  absorbs  energy  at  its  equator  and 
emits  it  at  its  poles.  The  equatorial  plane  of  the  solar- 
planetary  space!  is  filled  with  a  stream  of  energy  of 
heat  and  light  emanating  from  its  solar  center;  the 
polar  regions  of  the  space  are  filled  with  electrified  ions 
emanating  from  the  poles  of  the  planets,  radiating 
sunward,  and  concentrating  at  the  solar  poles;  and  so 
the  cycle  is  complete.  But,  mark,  with  the  absorption 
of  energy  the  Sun  gains  ponderable  matter,  and  this 
fact  is  indicative  of  a  greater  cycle.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  Earth  and  Sun  constitute  a  system  in  the  form 
of  a  galvanic  circuit  (Fig.  7),  the  Earth  being  a 
thermo-electric  cell — the  Earth  receives  energy  as  heat 
and  light  from  the  Sun  and  passes  it  back  to  that  body 
as  electricity. 

It  must  be  distinctly  remembered  that  in  the  solar- 
terrestrial  thermo-electric  circuit  ions  accumulate  at 
the  poles  of  the  Sun — cations  at  the  north  and  anions 
at  the  south.  In  the  common  processes  of  electrolysis, 
occurring  in  a  galvanic  circuit,  a  similar  accumulation 


EARTHQUAKES.  75 

of  ions  at  the  poles  of  an  electrolyte  may  be  so  great 
as  to  obstruct  the  primary  current,  and  be  sufficient  to 
create  a  reversal  called  the  polarized  current.  When 
the  ionic  accumulations  at  the  solar  poles  reach  certain 
maximum  potencies  they  break  loose  as  convective  cur- 
rents, chemically  synthetize,  and  their  energy  is  trans- 
formed into  heat  with  tremendous  effect  in  the  equa- 
torial regions  of  the  Sun  (Fig.  TNP).  The  ether  set 
free  by  the  transformation  of  energy  causes  the  Sun- 
spots  (Fig.  10).  It  is  clear  that  the  loosening  of  these 
great  embankments  of  ions  will  (1)  weaken  the  polar 
forces  of  the  Sun,  and  (2)  will  intensify  the  thermic  en- 
ergy radiating  from  that  body.  Mark  the  effect  of  these 
solar  conditions  on  the  Earth:  (1)  The  Sun's  poles 
being  weakened,  the  attraction  will  be  less  for  the 
electric  charges  of  the  poles  of  the  Earth;  and  (2) 
the  solar  heat  being  increased,  the  poles  of  the  Earth 
will  be  more  fully  charged.  What  is  the  result?  The 
terrestrial  polar  charges  are  mutually  attracted  and 
neutralize  within  the  terrestrial  body;  and  the  point 
of  transformation  of  the  energy  becomes  the  seismic 
focus.  At  the  focal  point  the  reversed  currents  from 
the  poles  of  the  Earth  are  transformed  into  heat,  and 
the  course  of  the  thermic  energy  marks  the  undulations 
of  the  seismic  disturbance  (Fig.  TFF).  The  earthquake 
is  a  thermic  wave  resulting  from  electric  transmutation, 
the  electric  energy  being  polarized  or  reversed  currents 
within  the  terrestrial  body,  and  the  initial  points  of 
disturbance  being  at  the  solar  poles.  This  is  the  fifth 
deduction,  and  is  the  summation  of  our  argument. 

Let  us  consider  the  conditions  which  must  obtain  in 
the  interior  of  the  Earth.  Let  us  apply  our  imagina- 
tive powers  to  the  cyclic  period  in  the  history  of  our 
solar  system  when  the  ponderable  matter  within  the 


76  EARTHQUAKES. 

solar  planetary  space  was  nebulous  in  character;  when, 
according  to  Kant,  Laplace,  and  Herschel,  gaseous 
matter  in  rotary  motion  was  evolved  by  a  special  crea- 
tive act.  But,  in  our  interpretations  let  our  conclusions 
be  deductive,  ever  remembering  that  our  hypothesis 
is  our  guide  and  arbiter.  Then  from  the  nebulous 
period  onward  we  may  trace  the  evolution  of  our 
planet  to  our  present  condition;  or,  commencing  at  our 
present  period  we  may  trace  it  still  onward,  until  it 
again  becomes  nebulous,  having  lost  its  planetary  iden- 
tity in  the  general  absorption  of  the  system  by  the  Sun 
(the  Greater  Cycle)  ;  but  at  no  evolutionary  phase  can 
we  deduce  a  solid  crust  on  an  interior,  or  on  any  part 
of  an  interior,  which  is  molten.  Our  Earth  is  solid  as 
the  rock  to  its  very  core.  The  gaseous  matter  must 
have  condensed  by  the  formation  of  a  solid  nucleus 
which  grew  by  accretion,  or  by  uniting  with  other 
nuclei,  until  the  present  proportions  were  attained.  This 
will  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  interior  of  the 
Earth  is  solid,  and  the  deeper  the  more  dense  it  be- 
comes, until  a  critical  point  is  reached,  when  maximum 
condensation  obtains. 

We  see  liquid  matter  belched  from  a  crater,  we  see 
heated  water  boiling  from  springs,  we  sink  our  shafts 
and  the  heat  perhaps  increases  with  the  depth;  but 
these  and  other  relative  phenomena  can  be  explained  on 
the  same  basis  as  earthquakes  are  explained — manifes- 
tation of  thermic  action  from  transformation  of  back 
electric  currents. 

Suppose  that  the  seismic  focus  is  at  a  point  ten  miles 
from  the  Earth's  surface  (Fig.  7r),  and  that  is  where 
electric  transformation  occurs;  and  say  that  it  covers 
an  area  of  one  mile  in  extent.  Then  from  this  area 
tremendous  waves  of  heat  will  be  initiated  which  will 


EARTHQUAKES.  77 

radiate  in  the  direction  of  least  resistence,  will  follow 
the  media  -of  greatest  thermic  conductivity,  and  the 
undulations  will  spread  until  the  terrestrial  surface  is 
reached.  A  wave  will  consist  of  two  phases:  (1)  a 
dilating  process  of  the  constituent  particles;  and  (2) 
a  contracting  process  of  the  particles.  The  dilation  is 
caused  by  the  ether  as  heat  entering  the  molecular  sys- 
tems, and  the  contraction  is  caused  by  the  molecular 
attraction  reasserting  itself.  Such  is  the  seismic  wave. 
The  first  effect,  however,  of  the  nascent  molecular  ether 
may  be  a  physical  blow  dealt  so  quickly  that  ponderable 
molecules  individually  cannot  respond.  In  virtue  of 
its  impenetrability  and  imponderability  the  ether  lifts 
and  cuts  its  way  through  the  solid  ground.  This  will 
constitute  the  maximum  of  intensity  or  primary  shock. 
As  the  pressure  is  modified  the  ether  as  heat  radiates 
through  the  molecular  systems  as  secondary  waves;  the 
whole  constituting  a  seismal  series.  As  the  ether  rushes 
through  the  atmosphere  it  produces  sound. 

It  is  obvious,  as  the  initial  fault  in  the  electric  system 
of  our  solar  planetary  space  is  situated  at  the  poles 
of  the  central  body,  the  Sun,  that  earthquakes  may  be 
considered  present  in  any  part  of  the  solar  system.  The 
spots  on  the  surface  of  Jupiter  indicate  seismic  and 
volcanic  activity  of]  the  great  planet.  However,  the 
great  spot  of  Jupiter  may  be  primary  or  solar  in  char- 
acter, as  the  author  has  explained  in  a  previous  work. 
More  probably  it  is  a  satellite  captured  and  resting  on 
his  surface.  No  doubt  many  conditions  may  determine 
the  locus  of  the  disturbance.  The  position  of  the  planets 
in  relation  to  the  Earth  may  be  a  determining  factor 
by  neutralizing  the  polar  energy  of  the  Sun,  thus  un- 
loosening the  polar  energies  of  the  Earth.  The  same 
may  be  said  in  regard  to  our  Moon.  The  time  of  day 


78  EARTHQUAKES. 

may  determine  the  meridian  of  seismic  activity.  How- 
ever, the  potent  factor  must  be  the  breaking  loose  of  the 
mighty  embankments  of  ions  piled  up  at  the  poles  of 
the  Sun  through  years  of  electric  activity  of  the  solar 
system. 

On  the  morning  of  April  18th,  1906,  at  5:13  o'clock, 
the  great  earthquake  shook  Central  California.  The 
Sun  was  at  its  zenith  at  20°  west  longitude  from  Green- 
wich. Probably  the  most  effective  time  of  day  for  the 
transformation  of  thermic  into  electric  energy  is  from 
1  to  3  P.  M.,  as  at  this  time  the  Sun's  rays  reach  the 
greatest  depth  in  the  crust  of  the  Earth.  Thus  we 
may  consider  the  longitude  of  Greenwich  as  indicating 
the  region  of  maximum  transformation  of  solar  into 
electric  energy  at  the  time  of  the  California  shock. 
"We  must  view  the  Earth  as  a  whole,!  a  polar  body. 
Imagine  the  solar  rays  incident  to  the  continents  of 
Europe  and  Africa  (while  California  sleepeth)  trans- 
formed into  electric  currents  seeking  the  poles  of  the 
Earth  and  thence  the  poles  of  the  Sun.  The  electric 
energy  is  flowing  intensely,  and  at  the  terrestrial  poles 
electric  potentials  are  accumulating,  but  the  solar 
poles  are  holding  fast  the  terrestrial  polar  charges.  The 
solar  body  is  pouring  its  energy  earthwards,  but,  it  is 
equal  to  the  occasion  and  holds  the  Earth  in  equilibrium 
as  a  needle  is  held  when  presented  to  a  magnet.  But, 
mark,  ionic  accumulations  of  years  at  the  poles  of  the 
central  body  are  moving  from  their  positions  as  in 
the  reversed  or  polar  movements  of  an  electrolyte. 
The  disturbances  become  more  pronounced,  the  ionic 
mountains  move  from  their  fastnesses,  slowly  at  first 
but  with  increasing  velocity/  and  the  ions  pierce  the 
Sun's  mass  with  a  force  which,  in  velocity,  ponderable 
dimensions,  and  magnitude,  is  unequaled  in  celestial 


EARTHQUAKES.  79 

phenomena.  It  is  a  battle  between  the  anions  and 
cations,  with  total  extinction  of  both,  and  the  battle- 
field is  marked  by  a  hole  in  the  Sun  which  can  be 
viewed  from  our  planet's  surface  (Fig.  10).  We  can 
only  compare  the  crash  to  impossibilities :  Let  us 
mentally  picture  two  comets  from  opposite  directions 
and  of  different  chemical  qualities  meeting  in  space, 
or  two  planets  of  opposite  cyclic  movements  rushing 
together;  and  by  a  play  of  the  imagination  we  may 
thus  conceive  of  the  tremendous  force  which  effects 
cavities  in  the  Sun's  mass  equal  in  dimensions  to  the 
size  of  the  Earth. 

The  immense  pressure  at  the  center  of  the  solar  body 
must  bring  matter  to  its  maximum  density.  The  law 
of  the  distribution  of  positive  and  negative  matter 
must  cause  the  solar  center  to  be  cation  or  metallic  in 
quality.  This  center  then  is  a  conductor  of  electricity. 
Now  mark  the  building  up  of  the  cathode  in  an  arc 
light  (Fig.  8),  and  we  can  conceive  how  the  accession 
of  ions  will  build  up  the  poles  of  the  Sun  both  in  matter 
and  in  force.  It  is  easily  seen  that  this  accession  will 
reach  a  maximum.  But  a  simple  landslip  from  the 
solar  poles  will  not  produce  the  sequential  manifesta- 
tions. What  must  take  place  is  about  as  follows:  Al- 
though ions  are  essential  to  a  convection  current  it 
does  not  follow  that  a  mass  made  up  of  ionic  deposits 
is  a  good  conductor  of  electricity.  It  is  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  such  a  mass  possesses  the  relative  conduc- 
tivity to  that  of  the  center  of  the  solar  body  as  the 
conductive  property  of  an  element  such  as  potassium 
is  to  that  of  silver  or  copper.  Then  (1)  the  accumu- 
lated ions  will  increase  the  resistance  to  electric  conduc- 
tion, and  will  in  consequence  retain  their  charges.  This 
will  decrease  the  heat  radiating  from  the  Sun,  and  will 


80  EARTHQUAKES. 

in  a  degree  lessen  the  attraction  of  the  solar  poles  for 
terrestrial  charges.  As  the  charged  ions  accumulate 
they  will  lose  their  equilibrium,  and  then  (2)  the  slip 
will  occur,  which,  being  charged  matter,  will  eventuate 
as  convection  currents.  The  conditions  must  be  exactly 
similar  at  both  poles.  The  convection  currents  will  pass 
through  the  solar  mass  more  superficially  than  do  the 
conduction  currents.  The  electric  matter,  however,  of 
the  conduction  currents  and  that  of  the  convection  cur- 
rents are  the  same  in  direction,  the  essential  difference 
being  that  the  ions  constituting  the  convection  cur- 
rents, which  under  solar  pressure  must  be  larger  in 
mass  than  those  received  from  the  planetary  poles,  are 
lost  to  the  poles  of  the  Sun,  which  in  consequence  have 
decreased  in  difference  of  potential. 

The  movement  of  ponderable  matter  from  the  poles 
of  the  Sun  is  partially  equilibrated  by  a  movement  of 
electric  matter  from  the  poles  of  the  Earth.  Positive 
ions  from  the  north  meet  the  negative  ions  from  the 
south  pole  of  the  Sun;  and  negative  electric  matter 
from  the  north  meet  positive  electric  matter  from  the 
south  pole  of  the  Earth.  The  former  cause  a  sun-spot, 
and  the  latter  an  earthquake,  or  manifests  as  a  volcano. 
We  are  living  between  charged  poles  and  the  earthquake 
is  caused  by  a  slip  or  leakage  of  electric  matter,  and 
is  the  thunder  and  lightning  of  a  solid  medium.  Nature 
deals  in  immensities,  and  her  celestial  unit  is  a  solar 
system,  but  she  is  exact  in  her  laws,  whether  the  object 
is  a  thermo-electric  cell  made  up  of  planetary  bodies, 
or  a  simple  galvanic  battery  artificially  constructed. 
Hence  the  disturbances  occurring  in  the  former  are 
diminutively  portrayed  in  the  latter. 

We  are  convinced  that  the  earthquake  question  is 
mainly  astronomical.  We  believe  that  on  the  basis  of 


MOUNTAINS.  81 

our  hypothesis  every  relative  fact  is  placeable  in  its 
appropriate  position  as  each  element  of  an  architectural 
puzzle  is  fitted  to  its  position.  The  solar  planetary 
space  is  the  unit  plot  on  which  the  great  Architect 
builds.  No  phenomenon  occurring  in  any  part  of  this 
space  can  be  understood  except  by  considering  its  rela- 
tion to  the  whole  space. 

The  "earthquake  crack"  of  California  is  between 
three  and  four  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  its  course 
is  remarkably  straight,  cutting  across  mountains  of 
considerable  magnitude.  The  average  horizontal  dis- 
placement by  the  earthquake  of  1906  is  given  as  about 
ten  feet.  It  is  easily  conceivable  that  an  immense  quan- 
tity of  heat  instantly  generated  at  the  focus,  taking 
the  general  direction  of  least  resistance,  would  break 
the  back  of  the  mass  above  it  in  a  straight  line  inde- 
pendently of  all  particular  structural  differentiation. 
It  must  ever  be  remembered  that  heat  is  a  manifesta- 
tion of  moving  ether,  a  substance  endowed  with  the 
property  of  impenetrability,  hence  the  earthquake  rift 
is  a  parting  of  the  rocks  to  allow]  this  substance  to 
pass  to  a  position  of  equilibrium.  That  heat  will  part 
ponderable  matter  in  such  a  way  can  be  demonstrated 
by  laboratory  experimentation.  Molar  as  well  as  molec- 
ular separation  is  effected  by  heat.  The  length  of 
the  earthquake  rift  depends  on  the  length  of  the  focal 
area  (area  of  electric  transformation),  and  the  dis- 
placement on  the  intensity  of  force,  or  the  amount  of 
ether  radiating.  It  is  conceivable  that  the  electric  and 
thermic  conductivities  of  the  mass  of  the  Earth  are  such 
that  seismic  waves  will  repeatedly  and  selectively  fol- 
low the  same  routes. 

Mountains.     That    the    Earth   has    the    property    of 
electric  conductivity  is  beyond  question.     Undoubtedly 


82  MOUNTAINS. 

its  parts  have  differential  conductivity.  The  question 
is  pertinent:  What  geological  structure  will  an  electric 
current  select  as  a  medium  in  passing  from  the  equator 
to  either  pole?  In  answering  this  question  we  must 
consider  the  varied  character  of  the  stratified  crust,  and 
(it  may  be  presumed)  the  almost  homogeneous  char- 
acter of  the  unstratified  rocks.  We  have  also  to  consider 
that  metals  are  the  best  conductors  although  closely 
approached  by  saline  solutions.  But  it  is  evident  that 
these  will  lack  continuity  when  placed  within  the  strati- 
fied, crust.  For  a  great  distance  an  electric  current 
undoubtedly  selects  a  path  through  unstratified  rocks 
as  against  one  through  stratified.  In  relation  to  this 
question  we  must  conceive  that  by  the  process  of  pri- 
mary condensation  the  metals  may  be  intimately  mixed, 
although  not  chemically  united  with  the  unstratified 
rocks. 

Then  what  part  of  the  unstratified  formation  of  the 
Earth  does  the  current  select?  Here  the  factor  of 
density  is  to  be  considered.  Density  to  a  certain  maxi- 
mum promotes  electric  conduction.  It  is  conceivable 
that  the  extreme  density  of  the  center  of  the  Earth 
promotes  electric  resistance,  and  that  an  electric  cur- 
rent finds  a  path  of  least  resistance  near  the  circumfer- 
ence of  the  unstratified  formation.  Here  we  arrive  at 
the  essential  element  of  the  question  as  to  how  moun- 
tains are  formed.  Back  electric  currents  from  the  ter- 
restrial poles  must  be  transformed  into  heat  in  the 
circumferential  portion  of  the  unstratified  rocks  of  the 
Earth.  The  tremendous  heat  generated  will  raise  the 
granitic  rocks  to  the  surface.  It  is  evident  that  the 
height  of  the  mountain  resulting  from  this  action  will 
be  directly  proportional  to  the  thickness  of  the  stratified 
deposit  above  the  point  of  transformation.  Hence 


VOLCANOES.  83 

geologists  find  evidence  of  mountains  being  once  mar- 
gins of  former  oceans  into  which  rivers  were  emptied, 
and  that  mountain  ranges  before  upheaval  were  lines 
of  exceptionally  thick  sediments;  and  hence  they  find 
evidence  of  primary  or  unstratified  formations  at  the 
top  of  mountains. 

If  the  neutralization  point  of  the  currents  be 
deeper  than  the  circumference  of  the  unstratified  rocks 
then  the  heat  will  travel  by  conduction  until  the  cir- 
cumference is  reached,  and  owing  to  a  change  in  the 
thermic  resistance  from  this  point  to  the  surface  of  the 
earth  the  heat  will  travel  by  convection.  In  any  case 
unstratified  rock  will  be  brought  to  the  surface,  uplift- 
ing and  breaking  through  the  stratified  portion.  It  will 
be  seen  that  mountain  building  may  fall  short  of  vol- 
canic action  inasmuch  as  the  erupted  materials  are  not 
spread  over  the  surface. 

Volcanoes.  Volcanic  eruptions  are  composed  of  two 
classes  of  rocks — acidic  and  basic.  It  is  clear  that  the 
primary  rocks  have  been  chemically  dissociated  by  an 
extraneous  force,  the  original  material  undoubtedly 
being  a  chemical  combination  of  the  acidic  and  basic 
integrants.  Heat  was  absorbed  during  the  process  of 
production  of  the  rocks,  the  action  being  analytic.  If 
the  heat  had  been  produced  by  chemical  action  a 
neutral  resultant  would  be  found  in  the  eruptions. 
Hence  we  cannot  absolutely  define  the  character  of  the 
rocks  of  the  interior  of  the  Earth  by  that  of  the  un- 
stratified rocks  on  the  surface,  these  having  undergone 
a  chemical  change  by  the  heat  which  elevated  them. 
"We  cannot  therefore  value  the  conductive  property  of 
the  .interior  of  the  Earth  by  that  of  the  unstratified 
material  on  the  surface.  However,  the  indications  are 
that  the  rocks  of  the  interior  are  crystalline,  and  there- 


84  VOLCANOES. 

fore  solid,  that  they  are  chemical  combinations  of  the 
acidic,  and  basic  eruptions,  and  that  they  are  finely 
permeated  with  metallic  concentration. 

A  theory  particular  in  its  application,  has  been  ad- 
vanced that  water  coming  in  contact  with  heated  rock 
of  the  interior  is  the  cause  of  eruptions.  The  facts  do 
not  uphold  this  theory.  Water  coming  in  contact  with 
heated  rock  would  cool  and  consolidate  the  rock,  by 
absorbing  heat.  Whereas  the  ejected  rocks  bear  evi- 
dence of  being  the  products  of  a  chemical  dissociation 
by  heat.  Heat  has  been  initially  imparted  to  them,  not 
withdrawn  from  them.  The  evidence  shows  that  the 
water  accompanying  the  eruption  belongs  to  the  strati- 
fied crust,  and  that  it  has  incidently  absorbed  heat  as 
an  element  of  the  crust  at  the  expense  of  j  the  true 
volcanic  material,  after  volatilization  has  occurred. 

Mountains,  volcanoes  and  earthquakes  have  a  com- 
mon origin  inasmuch  as  they  are  caused  by  heat  pro- 
duced by  neutralization  of  polar  electric  currents.  There 
are,  however,  changes  taking  place  in  the  Earth's  crust 
of  a  more  gradual  character  and  an  even  more  extensive 
one  than  mountain  building.  Perhaps  whole  continents 
are  being  slowly  and  imperceptibly  lowered  or  elevated, 
taking  the  sea  level  as  a  standard  of  measurement.  An 
area  of  10,000,000  square  miles  in  the  mid  Pacific  has 
sunk  10,000  feet  within  a  comparatively  recent  geolo- 
gical period.  Other  parts  have  been  relatively  elevated. 
How  shall  we  account  for  these  oscillations?  Simply 
by  an  elecrolytic  readjustment  of  the  constituent  ele- 
ments of  Earth  consequent  to  the  escape  of  electrified 
ions  from  its  poles  (Fig.  7 CD). 

The  cations  issuing  from  the  north  pole  must  modify 
the  unstratified  interior,  which  will  undergo  a  continual 
process  of  contraction  followed  by  a  falling  in  of  the 


CHAINING   AN   EARTHQUAKE.  85 

crust.  If  the  part  sinking  be  below  the  ocean  the  sea 
level  will  also  fall,  and  thus  relatively  certain  parts 
will  be  elevated.  The  planet  Earth  is  unmistakably 
a  contracting  body;  and  what  the  planet  loses  the  solar 
body  gains. 

Chaining  an  Earthquake.  The  energies  stored  in  the 
terrestrial  mass  as  coal,  oil,  etc.,  must  at  some  time  be 
exhausted.  The  currents  of  water  of1  the  Earth  will 
indefinitely  furnish  energy  convertible  into  electricity. 
This  will  hardly  suffice  for  the  uses  of  man.  The  prin- 
ciples underlying  the  conservation  of  energy  teaches  us 
that  energy  is  never  lost.  The  energy  of  the  Solar 
System  is  constant  in  amount.  Can  the  energy  that 
drives  the  Solar  System  be  tapped?  Can  the  energy 
which  manifests  as  an  earthquake  be  chained  and  made 
to  obey  the  will  of  man?  We  answer  these  questions 
affirmatively.  Metal  plates  placed  at  or  near  the  poles 
of  the  Earth  and  properly  connected  with  the  interior 
will  be  electrically  charged.  A  conducting  wire  con- 
necting the  north  and  south  polar  charges  would  tap 
the  motor  energy  of  the  Solar  System  and  furnish  heat 
and  light  and  potential  force  for  every  purpose  that 
the  human  mind  can  devise.  The  only  essential  quality 
of  the  conducting  wire  would  be  that  it  possess  less  re- 
sistance to  current  electricity  than  the  medium  between 
the  Sun  and  Earth. 

The  Shape  of  the  Earth.  The  Earth  is  oval  with 
the  larger  end  pointing  northward.  This  was  the  ter- 
restrial form  when  the  planet  was  transformed1  from 
cometary  conditions.  There  are,  however,  active  forces 
which  constantly  modify  its  form.  Mark  the  changes 
taking  place  at  the  poles  of  an  arc  light.  Observe  that 
the  anode  is  hollowed  out  and  the  cathode  is  built  up. 
An  ion  is  torn  off  by  the  current  from  the  anode  and 


86  SHAPE  OP  THE  EARTH. 

deposited  on  the  cathode.  Now  analyze  the  changes 
produced  by  the  forces  at  work  at  the  poles  of  the 
Earth  as  portrayed  in  Fig.  7.  At  the  north  an  electri- 
fied positive  ion  escapes  to  the  Sun.  This  must  be 
taken  from  the  solid  or  positive  matter  of  the  Earth. 
Consequently  the  pole  is  hollowed  out  as  the  anode  of 
the  arc  light  is  hollowed.  At  the  south  pole  of  the 
Earth  a  negative  ion  escapes  to  the  Sun.  It  is  reason- 
able to  conclude  that  this  negative  ion  is  torn  by  the 
electric  current  from  the  oxygen  molecule  of  the  at- 
mosphere and  that  the  residual  ion  is  positive  in  char- 
acter. A  disturbance  is  thus  produced  favorable  to 
condensation  and  building  up  the  south  pole  in  a  simi- 
liar  manner  to  the  building  up  the  cathode  of  an  arc 
light. 

The  positive  ions,  however,  may  not  altogether  come 
from  the  matter  proximate  to  the  north  pole  but  may 
by  electrolytic  action  seek  that  pole  from  the  interior 
of  the  terrestrial  mass.  The  positive  character  of  the 
interior  will  favor  an  ionic  stream  towards  the  north 
and  will  not  favor  such  action  towards  the  south  pole. 

The  author  has  previously  published  his  conclusions 
in  reference  to  the  terrestrial  poles,  but  lately  a  remark- 
able confirmation  of  his  views  has  been  made  in  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  explorations.  The  North  pole  is  sur- 
rounded by  water  and  the  South  is  found  at  a  height 
of  10,000  feet  above  sea  level.  Truly  the  anode  and 
cathode  of  an  arc  light  represent  respectively  the 
north  and  south  poles  of  the  Earth. 

It  is  conclusive  that  all  bodies,  large  or  small,  within 
a  solar  system,  with  the  exception  of  the  central  or  solar 
body,  assume  at  their  formative  stage  the  oval  form, 
and  that  this  form  in  the  case  of  planets  is  maintained 
by  processes  of  cyclic  energy.  The  Sun  is  globular. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
The  Cyclic  Periods  of  Planetary  Evolution. 

The  cyclic  manifestations  of  planetary  conditions  in- 
volve the  following  forces: 

Those  of  Concentrability :  (1)  Attraction!  between 
cation  elements,  by  the  predominance  of  which  the 
metallic  elements  are  the  products — elements  whose 
molecules  possess  positive  free  forces.  (2)  Neutraliza- 
tion between  cations  and  anions  (under  pressure)  pro- 
ductive of  such  rocks  as  the  primary,  granitic  or  crystal- 
line order,  whose  molecules  possess  constituents  which 
are  self  neutralizable.  (3)  Concentrating  influences  of 
the  static1  forces  of  the  Sun  on  proximate  bodies  (a 
blanket  of  concentrating  lines  of  forces  emanating  from 
the  Sun  envelops  the  system),  particularly  manifested 
in  a  comet  as  it  approaches  the  Sun.  As  the  solar 
body  increases  in  mass  and  in  static  force  it  increasingly 
dominates  the  planets  by  condensing  the  positive  ele- 
ments and  driving  off  the  chemically  free  negative  ele- 
ments, the  latter  seeking  an  equilibrium  in  a  common 
atmosphere  (Fig.  6). 

Those  of  Diffusibility :  (1)  Repulsion  between  anion 
elements,  the  fundamental  principle  which  maintains 
matter  in  atmosphere  (Fig.  3).  (2)  The  tendency  of 
the  forces  of  matter  to  neutralize  at  minimum  dis- 
tance. All  matter  strains  to  reach  free  cathode  par- 
ticles, and  incidentally  anode  particles.  (3)  Electric 
convection  currents,  as  in  ionization  of  matter  and  its 
conveyance  from  the  poles  of  the  planets  to  the  poles 
of  the  Sun.  (4)  Heat  produced  at  the  point  of  neutral- 


88  PLANETARY  EVOLUTION. 

ization  of  electric  currents,  as  in  the  case  of  the  cur- 
rents of  the  Sun  (Fig.  7).  The  local  action  of  this 
heat  keeps  the  solar  body  in  a  state  of  ionization.  (5) 
Solar  radiations.  As  the  solar  body  increases  in  electric 
and  thermic  activities  radiant  energies  volatilize  solid 
matter,  thus  positive  elements  of  the  planetary  body 
invade  the  atmosphere  of  the  planet. 

We  can  divide  planetary  life  into  four  periods: 

1.  The  Period  of  Nebulae.  The  extreme  outer  plan- 
ets have  lately  evolved  from  this  period.  Beyond  these 
there  must  exist  (although  not  entirely  demonstrable 
owing  to  its  anion  quality)  a  band  of  matter  from 
which  planets  may  be  condensed.  The  intrinsic  forces 
of  a  planetary  body  are  in  equilibrium  at  a  stage  of 
evolution  which  is  progressive  directly  proportional  to 
the  degree  of  dominance  of  the  Sun.  Having  reached 
an  equilibrium  the  intrinsic  forces  of  a  planet  resist 
the  concentrating  forces  of  the  Sun.  Each  planet  has 
its  particular  physical  state  which  accords  with  the 
equilibrium  of  its  forces.  Mercury  is  in  equilibrium 
as  a  solid  body,  Neptune  as  a  diffused  body.  A  real 
nebulous  condition,  however,  differs  from  the  state  of 
Neptune  and  from  the  state  of  the  common  atmosphere. 
The  energy  of  thej  solar  system  at  present  is  stored 
principally  in  the  Sun,  and  is  an  expression  of  the 
ionization  of  positive  matter.  A  solar  system  in  a 
nebulous  state  is  all  Sun — less  his  radiant  energies — 
its  positive  matter  being  ionized  by  processes  now 
going  on  in  our  system.  In  real  nebulosity  energy  is 
stored,  in  the  diffuse  state  of  Neptune  or  in  that  of  any 
negative  mass  no  energy  is  stored.  It  follows  that  the 
term  nebulous  can  only  be  applied  to  a  general  state  of 
matter  of  a  system  and  not  to  any  particular  part  of 
a  system.  It  is  not  strictly  applicable  to  any  part  of 


PLANETARY  EVOLUTION.  89 

the  solar  system,  except  we  apply  it  to  the  surface  mat- 
ter of  the  Sun.  Undoubtedly  from  the  true  nebulous 
state  a  planetary  nucleus  is  formed  by  intrinsic  con- 
densing properties  of  the  matter  involved.  The  con- 
densing forces,  however,  become  exhausted  and  an 
equilibrium  is  established.  Hence  condensation  depends 
on  the  Sun's  forces. 

2.  The  Period  of  Primary  or  Unstratified  Rocks. 
The  primary  condensation  processes  are  molecular  in 
character — molecule  by  molecule  as  in  the  growth  of  a 
crystal.  The  molecules  of  the  metals  form  in  the 
atmosphere  and  join  the  solid  formation  by  accretion. 
The  neutral  molecules  of  the  rocks  form  at  the  moment 
of  precipitation  from  cation  and  anion  gaseous  elements. 
The  results  of  the  forces  named  as  those  of  concentra- 
bility  are  a  neutral  rock  substance  molecularly  per- 
meated with  metallic  elements.  However,  the  interior 
of  a  planet  must  be  differentiated  and  to  some  extent 
stratified,  as  the  more  positive  materials  will  condense 
first,  perhaps  the  center  of  a  planet  is  a  metallic  core. 
In  the  formation  of  crystalline  rock  it  is  essential 
that  the  molecular  constitutent  should  be  neutral  and  a 
polarizable  quantity.  Within  the  substance  the  mole- 
cule will  have  poles,  and  the  crystalline  mass  will  have 
poles.  The  conception  forcibly  presents  that  at  the 
moment  of  solidification  the  poles  of  the  crystallizing 
molecules  will  assume  a  common  direction — the  delicate 
balance  of  the  molecules  as  they  solidify  will  allow  the 
positive  poles  to  be  attracted  northward  and  the  nega- 
tives poles  to  be  attracted  southward.  This  will  allow 
us  to  formulate  a  concept  of  the  Earth's  magnetic  and 
electrolytic  polarities.  The  form  and  mode  of  condensa- 
tion of  the  Earth  gives  it  a  diffuse  polarity  extending 
almost  to  the  equator,  but  intensified  at  its  geographical 


90  PLANETARY  EVOLUTION. 

poles.  Intermixed  with  the  polarizing  molecules  are 
those  of  the  metals,  conditionally  non-polarizable  and  of 
cation  quality.  These  together  with  the  non-polarizable 
anion  elements  solid  and  gaseous  give  the  Earth  its 
electrolytic  qualities.  The  concept  matures  and  formu- 
lates as  follows:  The  Earth  is  a  magneto-electrolyte, 
and  this  term  also  applies  to  the  other  planets. 

The  ponderable  elements  of  the  Earth  assume  their 
polarities  in  response  to  the  inductive  influence  of  the 
electric  currents  of  the  Sun,  and  initially  to  the  influ- 
ence of  cosmic  and  solar  static  forces.  After  the 
nucleus  of  the  planet  has  been  formed  the  direction  of 
the  polarity  of  the  crystallizing  molecules  will  be  influ- 
enced by  the  polarity  of  the  nucleus.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  mass  of  the  Earth  has  a  free  force  by  virtue 
of  its  cation  or  metallic  elements;  that  its  electrolytic 
character  is  derived  from  the  polar  placement  of  its 
cation  and  anion  elements;  and  its  magnetic  character 
from  its  crystalline  rocks.  The  distribution  of  the 
polarities  of  the  Earth  accounts  for  the  phenomena  of 
auroras  which,  induced  by  intense  solar  distrubance, 
manifest  to  within  18°  of  its  equator.  Economy  in  the 
travel  of  force  in  the  cycle  of  energy  between  the  Sun 
and  planets  demands  a  common  direction  of  polarity  in 
the  Solar  System.  Energy  selects  and  shapes  its  agents 
so  as  to  economize  its  efforts.  This  is  the  law  of  selec- 
tion of  least  resistance. 

During  this  period  water,  if  it  exist  at  all,  remains 
in  the  atmosphere.  The  atmosphere  is  impure  contain- 
ing such  elements  as  hydrogen,  carbo-hydrides,  and 
carbon  monoxide.  The  oxidation  of  the  hydrogen  is 
the  process  by  which  water  is  primarily  formed,  and 
the  exciting  cause  of  the  formation  may  have  been  elec- 
tric storms.  The  polar  electric  currents  neutralize  near 


PLANETARY  EVOLUTION.  91 

the  surface  of  solid  matter,  and  produce  only  slight 
elevations,  there  being  no  mountains,  the  planetary 
surface  being  one  vast  plain.  The  liquid  form  of  mat- 
ter does  not  exist,  at  least  not  in  the  beginning  of  the 
the  period.  Matter  crystallizes  and  forms  the  primary 
order  of  rocks  directly  from  the  gaseous  state,  or  be- 
comes solid  by  positive  concentrativeness  and  forms  the 
metals.  We  see  the  processes  manifested  in  a  cometary 
body  as  it  approaches  the  Sun.  There  is  no  suspicion 
of  a  liquid  constituent  in  a  comet.  Jupiter  is  the  best 
exponent  of  this  stage  of  evolution.  Mars  has  taken  one 
step  beyond  it. 

The  conception  is  general  that  during  this  period 
matter  is  at  high  temperature.  This  is  not  necessarily 
the  case,  as  matter  may  be  gaseous  without  being  hot. 
The  term  temperature  is  misleading  when  relatively 
applied  to  planetary  bodies.  A  thermometer  would 
necessarily  have  to  be  specifically  constructed  for  each 
planet.  The  Sun  is  at  a  high  temperature  because 
electric  energy  is  constantly  being  transformed  into 
heat  within  his  body,  thus  keeping  matter  above  the 
equilibrium.  Our  atmosphere  is  not  at  a  high  tempera- 
ture, and  we  may  conclude  that  cometary  matter  is  not. 
However,  the  condensation  of  our  atmosphere  would 
evolve  heat.  A  high  temperature  therefore  implies  a 
state  of  matter  above  the  equilibrium.  A  solid  material 
on  the  Earth  requiring  extreme  heat  to  sublimate  may 
equilibrate  as  a  vapor  on  Neptune  because  of  the  modi- 
fied influence  of  the  static  forces  of  the  Sun.  It  vapor- 
izes on  Neptune  by  intrinsic  dissociating  force  and  not 
from  heat.  A  body  is  at  a  high  temperature  when  it  is 
capable  of  condensing  by  its  intrinsic  forces,  and  this 
quality  exclusively  belongs  to  cation  matter. 


92  PLANETARY  EVOLUTION. 

3.  The  Period  of  Stratified  Rock.  Oxygen  and  hy- 
drogen have  united  and  form  water  during  this  period. 
Climatically  there  are  two  mountains  present,  the  north 
and  south  polar  regions.  Water  in  the  atmosphere 
first,  and  afterwards  on  the  surface  of  the  planet, 
becomes  heated  at  the  equator,  as  water-vapor,  seeks 
the  winter  pole,  and  is  there  condensed  as  snows.  Sea- 
sonal change  melts  the  snow  and  the  first  rivers  are 
formed.  These  tear  asunder  the  polar  unstratified 
formations,  carry  them  southward  or  northward  as  the 
case  may  be,  and^  deposit  their  loads  in  the  beds  of 
oceans  which  the  water  of  the  rivers  form,  thus  initiat- 
ing the  archaean  system  of  rocks.  The  archceozoic  era 
is  thus  ushered  in  sequential  to  conditions  in  which  the 
water  molecule  is  in  equilibrium,  and  concurrent  with 
physical  conditions  which  permit  a  water  cycle. 

Mars  is  evidently  passing  through  the  archaeozoic  era 
His  seasonal  snow  caps  from  which  emerge  the  extraor- 
dinary system  of  canals  distributed  almost  over  the 
whole  planet,  the  vast  colored  areas  also  seasonal,  and 
a  mountainless  surface,  are  phenomena  which  indicate 
the  archaean  period  as  being  the  present  stage  of  Mar- 
tian evolution.  Moreover  Mars  occupies  a  position  in 
the  solar  system  which  denotes  a  later  development  than 
that  of  the  Earth. 

Geologists  state  that  there  is  an  absolute  unconform- 
ity between  the  archaean  system  and  every  other  system 
of  rocks.  They  observe  a  universal  break  between 
the  archaean  and  palaeozoic  systems,  giving  rise  to  the 
conception  of  a  lost  interval.  During  this  time  great 
changes  occurred  in  physical  geography  and  climate. 
What  happened?  The  archaean  rocks  are  very  exten- 
sive and  of  enormous  thickness — 40,000  feet  in  Canada. 
It  is  evident  that  the  opportunity  is  here  presented  for 


PLANETARY  EVOLUTION.  93 

mountain  building  Polar  currents  neutralizing  and 
transforming  into  heat  in  the  unstratified  formations 
below  this  mass  of  archaean  rocks  must  find  vent  at  the 
surface  of  the  Earth.  Hence  a  mountain  is  born  from 
mother  Earth.  The  significance  of  this  event  is  at  once 
apparent.  It  is  revolutionary.  The  water  vapor  of  the 
atmosphere  is  condensed  at  the  mountain  top  within 
the  temperate  zone,  new  rivers  with  different  directions 
spring  up,  and  latitudes  that  previously  were  barren 
become  green  with  flora,  quickly  to  be  followed  by 
corresponding  fauna.  The  areas  covered  with  archaean 
rocks  where  vegetation  had  previously  commenced  be- 
came a  desert  because  of  the  change  of  water  courses 
and  the  surfaces  of  the  rocks  became  eroded  by  long 
exposure.  The  cycle  of  the  water  systems  had  changed, 
and  the  palceozoic  era  was  evolved  with  the  birth  of  a 
mountain. 

4.  The  Period  of  Disintegration.  A  planet  ages 
like  the  human  body  by  becoming  relatively  more  posi- 
tive in  its  constituent  elements.  It  is  a  process  of 
cationization. 

The  tail  or  atmosphere  of  a  comet  is  always  the  more 
distant  part  from  the  Sun.  It  would  be  the  same  with 
the  Earth's  atmosphere  if  it  were  not  for  the  planet's 
daily  rotation.  The  Moon's  atmosphere  is  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  that  body.  The  relative  position  of  a 
comet's  tail  means  that  its  more  negative  constituents 
tend  to  escape,  and  some  of  them  do  escape,  as  that 
body  approaches  the  center  of  the  solar  system. 

From  a  study  of  the  behavior  of  comets  we  derive  two 
lessons:  1.  That  negative  matter  in  equilibrium  has 
a  certain  quantitative  maximum  which  decreases  as  the 
body  approaches  the  Sun.  2.  That  positive  matter  con- 
centrates as  the  body  approaches  the  Sun,  the  solidifica- 


94  PLANETARY  EVOLUTION. 

tion  occurring  directly  from  the  gaseous  state.  Con- 
densation is  effected  by  the  influence  of  solar  static 
force;  whilst  thermic  radiations  have  diffusive  effects. 
Now  although  a  planet  does  not  rush  toward  the  Sun 
with  the  speed  of  a  comet,  yet  there  is  approachment 
between  the  solar  and  planetary  bodies.  The  Sun  is  a 
growing  body  and  its  surface  thus  approaches  the  plan- 
ets. Again  its  enlargement  gives  it  more  force  which 
is  equal  to  approximation.  Further  the  increase  of 
solar  force  will  drive  off  the  negative  elements  of  the 
planets,  thus  making  these  bodies  relatively  more  posi- 
tive, which  will  then  equilibrate  nearer  to  the  solar 
body.  Thus  their  orbits  must  be  undergoing  a  slow  proc- 
ess of  contraction. 

We  can  now  formulate  our  deductions  as  how  a  planet 
dies.  This  is  best  done  by  comparing  Venus  with  the 
Earth,  although  in  this  the  scarcity  of  facts  relative 
to  the  former  will  in  a  measure  hamper  us.  Astrono- 
mers have  observed  on  Venus  irregularities  of  surface 
which  they  have  concluded  to  be  mountains  of  very 
great  altitude.  Schroeter  assigned  a  height  of  25  to  30 
miles  to  those  near  the  south  pole  of  the  planet.  This 
assignment  of  altitudes  is  supposed  to  be  extravagant. 
It  has  been  concluded  by  observers  that  the  atmosphere 
of  Venus  is  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  times  as  exten- 
sive and  as  dense  as  that  of  the  Earth,  and  having  an 
actual  height  of  about  55  miles.  Its  albedo  is  three 
times  that  of  the  Moon,  four  times  that  of  Mercury, 
and  is  exceeded  by  Jupiter  and  Uranus.  This  high 
reflecting  power  has  been  accepted  by  some  as  evidence 
of  clouds  in  its  atmosphere,  but  by  others  it  is  con- 
sidered to  be  too  high  for  cloud  reflection. 

Let  us  see  what  changes  will  be  made  by  the  Earth 
in  its  course  toward  the  conditions  of  Venus  as  indi- 


PLANETARY  EVOLUTION.  95 

cated  by  relative  facts.  It  is  conclusive  that  the  escape 
of  electrified  cations  from  the  north  pole  of  the  Earth — 
cations  seek  this  pole  by  electrolysis  from  the  terrestrial 
center — will  contract  the  unstratified  area  and  allow 
the  bottom  of  the  sea  to  sink,  and  thus  lower  the  sea 
level.  Obviously  mountains  must  increase  in  relative 
altitude.  As  the  Sun  increases  in  dimensions  and 
radiant  power  there  will  be  more  water  vapor  and  less 
water  liquid  on  our  planet.  Further  water  is  continu- 
ously being  absorbed  by  organic  matter,  thus  lessening 
the  quantity  of  the  liquid  variety,  and  some  of  it  may  be 
left  as  snow  on  the  tops  of  the  mountains  as  they 
increase  in  height.  Furthermore  the  negative  ions 
escaping  as  a  convection  current  from  the  south  pole 
deprive  hydrogen  of  its  companion,  and  thus  hydro- 
gen will  accumulate  in  the  top  atmosphere.  Again 
oxygen  being  chipped  to  form  a  negative  ion  the  resid- 
uali  cation  precipitated  will  build  up  the  south  pole, 
hence  the  high  mountains  in  this  region  of  Venus.  Our 
Earth  has  already  commenced  south  polar  mountain 
building,  and  a  corresponding  hollowing  of  the  north 
polar  region. 

Thus  it  is  easily  seen  that  our  mountains  will  gradu- 
ally assume  a  tremendous  relative  height  and  that  the 
Earth  will  partially  and  even  wholly  lose  its  water. 
Truly  the  observation  of  Schroeter  does  not  imply  an 
extravagant  condition  for  even  a  hundred  miles  is  not 
an  excessive  estimate  of  the  altitude  to  be  attained  by 
mountains  on  a  planet  having  an  8,000-mile  diameter. 

As  the  solar  and  terrestrial  bodies  approximate  and 
the  former  gains  more  gravitational  power  over  the 
latter  a  negative  or  anion  atmosphere  will  lose  its 
equilibrium.  The  negative  elements  will  gradually  be 
replaced  by  positive  elements  volatilized  chiefly  by  the 


96  PLANETARY  EVOLUTION. 

heat  of  the  Sun.  This  process  of  cationization  of  the 
atmosphere  will  render  it  less  transparent  and  more 
extensive  than  at  present,  but  will  in  the  end  force 
animal  and  vegetable  life  to  become  extinct.  When  the 
planet  is  still  more  under  the  influence  of  the  Sun  its 
positive  atmosphere  may  join  the  solar  body,  becoming 
part  of  its  chromosphere. 

The  albedo  of  Venus  is  about  equal  to  that  of  Jupi- 
ter. This  would  indicate  similar  densities  of  their 
atmospheres.  The  forces  active  in  Jupiter  (solar 
gravitational  forces)  have  not  yet  separated  the  positive 
gases  from  the  negative — the  air  has  still  to  be  purified 
by  further  condensation  of  positive  matter.  The  forces 
active  in  Venus  (solar  thermic  radiations)  have  volatil- 
ized positive  matter  which  is  displacing  the  negative — 
the  air  is  being  vitiated  and  the  period  in  which  vitaliz- 
ing processes  are  in  equilibrium  is  passing.  Clearly 
with  negative  gases  passing  from  its  atmosphere  the 
breath  of  life  is  literally  leaving  Venus;  and  as  for 
Mercury  it  is  but  a  cationized  cinder. 

There  is  this  consideration,  however,  in  reference  to 
Venus.  The  cationization  of  an  atmosphere  will  com- 
mence at  its  top,  the  volatilized  positive  elements  such 
as  hydrogen  being  lighter  than  the  negative  oxygen 
and  nitrogen,  and  not  until  the  process  is  well  advanced 
will  it  affect  cell  life  on  the  planet.  This  process  may 
have  already  been  initiated  in  the  Earth's  atmosphere. 
Venus  with  high  mountains,  and  high  albedo  may  have 
as  temperate  a  climate  as  the  Earth,  and  although  hav- 
ing a  less  amount  of  water  than  the  Earth  the  water 
cycles  may  be  more  direct  and  shorter,  and  therefore 
more  available  for  the  production  of  organic  matter. 
Nevertheless  Venus  is  approaching  or  has  already  at- 
tained the  critical  period  when  the  essential  conditions 


PERIOD  OF  CELL  LIFE.  97 

for  the  production  of  the  organic  cell  no  longer  pre- 
vail. 

The  process  of  cationization  characterizes  the  whole 
life  of  a  planet,  which  is  mainly  accomplished  by  solar 
force  driving  off  anion  matter.  During  the  first  two 
periods  the  planet  is  built  up  by  solidification  of  at- 
mospheric elements,  a  process  which  ends  when  the 
atmosphere  is  cleared  of  cation  gases.  As  electrified 
particles  both  anions  and  cations  escape;  to  the  Sun, 
while  anions  are  also  eliminated  by  the  concentrating 
influence  of  that  body.  Thus  disintegration  of  planets 
proceed  by  the  escape  of  both  anions  and  cations. 


PERIOD    OF    CELL    LIFE THE    WATER    PERIOD. 

Within  the  solar  system  the  psychozoic  era  is  fully 
attainable  apparently  in  one  planet  at  a  time.  Com- 
mencing with  the  innermost  planet  when  the  Sun's 
energy  is  relatively  small,  and  when  the  system  is  just 
evolving  from  the  nebulous  period  of  its  cycle,  the 
length  of  this  era  must  be  directly  proportional  to  the 
planet's  distance  from  the  Sun.  As  the  era  progresses 
outward,  step  by  step,  from  planet  to  planet,  its  length 
increases,  the  size  of  the  planet  being  a  factor  of  but 
slight  importance  in  directing  its  evolution.  Then,  what 
are  the  conditions  essential  to  the  evolution  and  surface 
distribution  of  the  vegetable  and  animal  cell?  The 
answer  is  as  follows: 

1.  A  common  boundary  (1)  between  solid  and  gase- 
ous matter;  (2)  between  positive  and  negative  matter; 
and  (3)  demarcating  a  surface  at  which  the  radiant 


98  PERIOD  OF  CELL  LIFE. 

energies  of  the   Sun  are  localized  owing  to  increased 
resistance. 

2.  Water. 

3.  Mountains. 

4.  Axial  rotation. 

The  common  boundary  line  undoubtedly  exists  on 
Mars,  and  perhaps  on  Venus.  On  these  also  the  known 
facts  favor  the1  existence  of  water.  The  presence  of 
the  common  boundary  renders  it  possible  for  an  animal 
resting  on  a  solid  to  breathe  an  atmosphere  which  is 
purely  negative.  At  the  common  boundary  line  radiant 
energy  is  localized  at  a  point  where  a  synthesis  is 
possible  involving  both  positive  and  negative  elements, 
the  result  being  the  organic  molecule  so  differentiated 
from  other  molecules  as  to  be  supposed  by  some  to 
call  for  a  special  creation.  The  concentrating  influence 
of  the  gravitational  forces  of  the  Sun  and  of  those  of 
the  planet  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  diffusing  forces  of 
matter  (repulsion  between  negative  entities,  the  strain 
in  positive  matter  to  neutralize  by  maximum  contact, 
and  incident  radiant  energy)  on  the  other  hand,  effect 
a  balance  of  force  which  reaches  its  acme  at  the  relative 
position  which  the  planet  Earth  now  occupies  in  the 
solar  system.  Concurrently  with  the  advent  of  the 
common  boundary  line  the  same  forces  unite  in  produc- 
ing another  essential  to  cell-life,  the  water-molecule. 

Axial  rotation  may  not  be  absolutely  essential  to  cell- 
life,  but  its  absence  certainly  limits  the  sphere  of  cell 
activity.  The  same  can  be  said  of  mountains.  Without 
them  the  water  cycle  must  be  limited  as  in  the  case 
of  Mars. 

On  one  side  of  the  boundary  line  is  an  atmosphere  of 
almost  purely  negative  elements  presenting  but  slight 


PERIOD  OF  CELL  LIFE.  99 

resistance  to  radiant  energies,  heat  and  light;  and  on 
the  other  side  is  matter  of  a  positive  solid  presenting 
great  resistance  to  radiant  energy.    Then  there  is  essen- 
tially present  a  substance  of  such  delicate  potencies  as 
to  pass  readily  from  the  solid  to  the  gaseous  and  to 
form   an   intermediate   liquid   state.     The   molecule   of 
the  intermediate  substance,  water,  of  slight  positive  free 
force,  at  the  boundary  line  of  the  physical  states  of 
matter  forms  a  nucleus  round  which  positive  and  nega- 
tive molecules  or  atoms  are  incorporated  into  one  mole- 
cule or  cell,  the  unit  of  organic  life,  and  which  is  differ- 
entiated according  to  the  radiation  pressure.    The  essen- 
tial elements  to  the  presence  of  cell-life  on  a  planet  is 
the  water  molecule,  and  a  distinct  physical  line  of  de- 
marcation at  the  planet's  surface  between  negative  and 
positive  matter  where  radiant  energy  is  stayed  and  trans- 
formed.   The  solar  radiations  transmitted  by  the  atmos- 
phere reach  the  point  of  resistance  where  the  energy  is 
localized  and  transformed,   and  one  of  the  results  of 
transformation  is  the  cell-molecule.     In  the  outer  plan- 
ets positive  matter  has  not  sufficiently  condensed  and 
exists  in  the  atmosphere,  in  the  extreme  inner  planets 
positive  matter  has   again  crossed   the  boundary  line, 
being  volatilized  by  solar  heat.     In  the  outer  planets 
the  chemical  elements  of  water  remain  apart  to  main- 
tain the  solar  planetary  equilibrium,  the  pressure  be- 
ing   such    as    to    allow    the    forces    of    dissociation    to 
maintain  the  hydrogen  and  the  oxygen  atoms  as  sepa- 
rate entities.     In  the  extreme  inner  planets  the  solar 
heat  increasingly  keeps  the  water  in  its  vapor  form,  and 
may  even  dissociate  its  chemical  elements,  or  prevent 
them   from   associating.     Further   if   axial   rotation  is 
absent  water  may  be  relatively  repelled  by  solar  forces 
to  the  distant  side  of  the  planet.    In  the  outer  planets 


100  PERIOD  OF  CELL  LIFE. 

there  is  no  boundary  line  between  positive  and  negative 
matter;  there  is  no  well  defined  line  where  radiant 
energy  is  stopped  and  localized ;  there  must  be,  however, 
a  line  of  demarcation  between  solid  and  gaseous  mat- 
ter. On  the  planets  where  cell-life  is  prevalent  these 
lines  are  not  only  present  and  well  defined,  but  they 
are  identical,  a  quality  which  is  essential  to  the  synthe- 
sis of  a  cell-molecule.  In  Mercury  negative  matter  may 
be  absent  except  intimately  associated  with  positive 
matter,  and  the  Sun's  rays  may  beat  on  the  surface  of 
the  planet  as  they  beat  on  the  surface  of  the  Moon 
proximate  to  the  Earth. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  a  substance  so  universally 
present  on  the  Earth  as  water  has  not  a  physical  dupli- 
cate. It  stands  on  the  margin  of  positive  matter  with 
small  molecular  weight  and  slight  cohesiveness,  and 
without  it  the  liquid  state  of  matter  would  have  but 
slight  meaning.  The  conditions  of  its  equilibration 
seem  to  be  the  aim  of  all  the  activities  of  nature,  for  it 
is  the  basic  principle  which  allows  the  molecule  to  be 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  cell.  It  is  distinctive  in 
molecular  equipoise,  and  performs  its  part  so  well  that 
nature  has  not  attempted  to  imitate  it.  Marginal  con- 
ditions of  positive  and  negative  spheres  must  be  measur- 
ably well  demarcated  before  the  compromise  liquid  state 
obtains.  When  negatives  predominate  in  the  atmosphere 
and  positives  are  essentially  confined  to  solid  form; 
when  the  condensing  influences  of  the  static  forces  of 
the  Sun  have  reached  a  maximum  over  positive  matter, 
and  when  the  volatilizing  influence  of  radiating  forces 
over  positive  matter  are  not  yet  predominant  at  the 
planet's  surface,  then  is  the  period  that  the  water- 
molecule  steps  into  equilibrium  in  the  liquid  state  of 
matter,  and  the  water  substance  courses  in  a  cycle 


WATER  PERIOD.  101 

which  invades  the  sphere  of  the  negative  atmosphere 
as  well  as  that  of  the  positive  solid. 

It  may  be  surmised  that  such  elements  as  carbon  diox- 
ide, oxygen,  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  carbon,  hy- 
drogen, and  others  are  equally  important  as  water  in 
the  construction  of  organic  matter.  Undoubtedly  all 
are  important  and  even  essential  but  neither  marks  an 
era  in  planetary  evolution,  and  all  of  them  with  the 
probable  exception  of  carbon  dioxide  existed  before 
the  period  of  stratified  rocks.  On  the  other  hand  water 
is  the  chief  agent  in  the  production  of  stratification. 
The  period  of  cell-life  may  be  called  the  water  period 
for  the  cell-molecule  is  directly  sequential  to  the  wa- 
ter-molecule, and  the  eventuation  of  water  is  imme- 
diately followed  by  the  disappearance  of  the  cell.  Mars 
by  its  colored  areas  announces  the  presence  of  vegetable 
life,  and  through  its  polar  snow  caps  and  canals  the 
presence  of  the  water  cycle.  Venus  through  spectrum 
analysis  gives  evidence  of  water  in  its  atmosphere,  but 
where  are  the  areas  of  color  of  this  planet?  Perhaps 
hidden  in  the  deep  valleys,  where  man  is  making  or 
has  made  his  last  stand.  The  spectra  of  the  Sun  and 
even  of  the  comets,  give  evidence  of  the  presence  of 
hydrogen,  carbon,  and  other  elements,  but  the  spectrum 
of  water  is  only  found  in  Mars  and  Venus,  a  planet 
closely  approaching,  and  one  just  departing  from 
Earth's  conditions. 

The  question  arises:  Is  the  water-molecule  exactly 
the  same  on  all  the  planets?  Spectrum  analysis  seems 
to  answer  Yes.  All  forces  must  be  modified  according 
to  the  planetary  conditions  and  distance  from  the  Sun. 
At  a  constant  distance  from  the  Sun  a  spectrum  of  a 
substance  is  distinctive  and  apparently  is  not  duplicated 
by  any  other  substance.  As  far  as  known  the  spectrum 


102  WATER  PERIOD. 

of  sodium  does  not  belong  to  any  other  chemical  ele- 
ment, nor  does  sodium  exist  on  the  Earth  modified  in 
any  one  of  its  characteristics,  say  molecular  weight. 
Evidently  a  spectrum  of  a  substance  is  constant  and 
distinctive,  modified  only  by  dissociating  chemical  or 
physical  conditions,  and  is  inimitable  by  other  sub- 
stances consituted  of  a  different  number  of  cathode  and 
anode  particles,  or  having  a  different  arrangement  of 
these  ponderable  ultimates  within  the  atomic  or  molec- 
ular structure.  However,  water  may  be  modified,  in 
its  molecular  constituency,  in  Mars  or  Venus  and  yet 
retain  the  same  physical  properties  as  those  of  water 
on  the  Earth. 

How  is  water  at  first  produced?  The  initial  produc- 
tion could  hardly  occur  as  a  synthesis  at  the  common 
boundary  line.  Here  water  absorbs  radiations  and 
evaporates.  It  is  likely  to  occur  in  this  wise:  The  hy- 
drogen and  oxygen  are  mixed  in  the  atmosphere.  Under 
specific  gravitational  pressure  and  specific  radiation- 
pressure  thermic  radiations  are  converted  into  electric 
charges,  the  hydrogen  being  negatively  charged  and 
the  oxygen  positively  charged.  This  process  will  go  on 
up  to  a  certain  maximum  when  the  charges  will  neu- 
tralize, leaving  the  product  water.  This  process  occurs 
in  thunder  storms  at  the  present  time.  Above  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  radiation  pressure  and  below  a  certain 
degree  of  gravitational  pressure  the  formative  process 
of  water  could  not  occur  as  the  molecules  of  the  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen  are  too  far  apart.  Water  is  the 
highest  type  of  molecular  equilibration  in  which  posi- 
tive and  negative  matter,  and  solid  and  gaseous  mat- 
ter join  hands  in  a  compromise.  It  follows  a  cycle  from 
the  fluid  form  of  the  ocean  to  the  gaseous  of  the  cloud, 
hence  to  the  solid  of  the  snow  or  ice  of  the  mountain, 


THE  CELL-MOLECULE.  103 

thence  returning  to  the  fluid  of  the  ocean.  As  H20 
it  is  positive  and  seeks  the  negative  pole  of  an  electric 
current,  and  as  H202  it  is  negative  and  is  relatively  re- 
pelled from  that  pole.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  water 
in  its  cycle  crosses  the  common  boundary  line  in  two 
forms,  the  physical  and  chemical,  besides  changing  its 
electrical  aspect. 

In  order  to  have  a  clear  conception  of  the  synthetic 
process  by  which  the  organic  cell-molecule  is  formed 
we  must  fully  bear  in  mind  what  constitutes  a  molec- 
ular body.  A  molecule  is  made  up  of  atoms  in  close 
contact,  the  constituents  losing  their  identity  and  the 
molecule  becoming  the  physical  unit.  There  are  no 
interspaces  within  the  molecular  body.  As  all  mole- 
cules are  composed  of  the  two  kinds  of  matter  one  kind 
may  predominate.  Hence  a  molecule  may  have  a  free 
force  of  either  positive  or  negative  quality.  The  free 
force  is  represented  in  an  induction  field  surrounding 
the  molecular  body,  and  this  induction  field  may  have 
numerous  smaller  molecules  as  constituents.  Molecules 
relatively  differ  in  quantity  as  much  as  masses.  The 
conception  that  the  organic  cell  has  a  molecular  con- 
struction, the  nucleolus  being  a  true  molecule  and  the 
nucleus  its  induction  field,  gives  a  key  to  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  facts  of  karyokinesis  and  other  prop- 
erties of  organic  matter.  That  the  nucleoli  and  cen- 
trosomata  of  animal  cells,  the  anisotropic  substance  of 
muscles,  the  analogous  unit  in  conducting  nerve  tissue, 
and  various  unit  bodies  within  the  nuclei  and  cytoplasm 
of  cells  are  molecules  of  inductive  negative  poten- 
tial having  all  the  properties  of  the  physical  unit  is 
readily  conceivable  when  the  above  description  of  a 
molecule  is  accepted.  The  cell  molecule  is  probably 
a  compound  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  and 
either  phosphorus  or  sulphur,  thus  possessing  a  free 


104  THE  CELL-MOLECULE. 

force  of  negative  quality;  or  with  sodium,  calcium  or 
other  cation  elements  possessing  a  free  force  of  positive 
quality.  Its  atomic  constituents  no  doubt  number  many 
thousands,  and  it  attains  such  dimensions  as  to  be  ob- 
servable under  the  microscope. 

Before  the  organic  cell  makes  its  appearance  on  a 
planet  there  must  be  considerable  stratification  of  rock 
effected  by  water,  and  the  surface  matter  must  contain 
carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  together  with  phosphorus, 
sulphur,  sodium,  calcium,  etc.,  probably  chemically  com- 
bined with  oxygen.  Water  is  abundantly  present  on 
the  surface  and  oxygen  and  nitrogen  in  the  atmosphere, 
all  under  concentrative  lines  of  force  and  static  pres- 
sure issuing  from  the  Sun  and  Earth.  Upon  this,  the 
essential  material  for  the  construction  of  a  cell-mole- 
cule, there  are  incident  rays  of  solar  heat — ether  pres- 
sure— which  meet  with  resistance  to  their  reflection  and 
to  their  transmission,  and  the  course  of  least  resistance 
is  to  become  localized  under  an  equilibrium.  The  tend- 
ency of  the  heat  is  toward  dissociation  of  the  molecular 
elements  present,  but  this  is  resisted  by  the  static  pres- 
sure. A  synthesis  therefore  ensues  in  which  a  cell- 
molecule  is  constructed  with  a  free  force  capable  of 
polarizing  the  radiant  ether  in  its  field  of  induction. 
A  molecular  body  is  thus  constructed  with  a  formula 
such  as:  C+H+N+P+0+. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  evolution  of  cell-molecules 
within  the  animal  body  is  attended  by  the  same  prin- 
ciples as  those  above  defined.  The  blood  represents  the 
radiant  energy  and  enters  tissue  surrounded  by  a  cap- 
sule, membrane,  or  bone  resistant  to  analytic  reactions, 
as  the  static  pressure  is  resistant  to  such  on  the  planet's 
surface.  Without  a  capsule  or  other  resistant  structure 
no  synthesis  would  be  possible.  Of  course  the  essen- 
tial atomic  elements  must  be  present  in  all  cases. 


THE  CELL-MOLECULE.  105 

Each  molecule  is  an  equilibrate  under  the  sur- 
rounding relations  of  matter,  force  and  space.  It  as- 
sumes the  globular  form  because  this  form  more  than 
any  other  furnishes  maximum  contact  at  minimum  dis- 
tance to  its  constituents.  If  the  conditions  are  altered 
the  molecule  by  its  own  intrinsic  forces  will  divide. 
So  the  cell  molecule  under  specific  conditions  of  nutri- 
tion and  pressure  undergoes  mitosis  and  equilibrates  by 
its  intrinsic  forces. 

The  strictly  physiological  properties  of  organic  matter 
can  be  shown  to  be  founded  on  the  physical  properties 
of  the  inorganic.  The  author,  however,  is  bound  to 
say  that  in  vital  processes  the  properties  of  matter  do 
not  cover  the  whole  ground.  This  is  well  illustrated  in 
karyokinesis.  The  cell  divides  and  redivides  until  the 
blastula  or  mulberry  mass  is  attained.  So  far  the  mi- 
totic  action  can  be  explained  on  the  basis  of  the  phy- 
sical properties  of  matter.  But  now  the  query  presents : 
Why  does  one  part  of  a  mass  of  cells  extend  itself  to 
form  a  toe,  another  to  form  a  finger,  and  a  third  a 
cell  in  the  brain?  Or,  how  comes  the  vast  differentia- 
tion of  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms.  The  prop- 
erties of  matter  furnish  no  answer.  We  here  enter  the 
sphere  of  Mind.  An  already  formed  concept  of  a  fu- 
ture being  or  organism  is  clothing  itself  with  matter 
essential  to  its  expression.  The  gentle  equipoise  of  the 
organic  cell-molecule  allows  it  to  respond  to  the  new 
force,  and  to  vibrate  (polarize  and  depolarize)  at  the 
latter 's  initiatory  behest.  The  cell-molecule  is  the 
basic  element  of  the  field  where  Mind  and  Matter  con- 
jointly play.  There  is  a  sphere  where  the  properties  of 
Matter  exclusively  and  all  sufficiently  act;  and  there  is 
a  sphere  where  the  properties  of  Mind  and  Matter  con- 
jointly act. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
The   Present  Evolutionary  Period  of   Mars. 

The  important  features  of  this  planet  are  its  relative 
distance  from  the  Sun  (141,500,000  miles),  about  one 
and  one-half  times  the  distance  of  the  Earth  from  the 
solar  body;  its  seasonal  polar  caps;  and  its  canals,  also 
seasonal,  stretching  from  the  summer  pole  beyond  the 
equator,  and  well  towards  the  winter  pole.  The  volume 
of  Mars  is  one-seventh  that  of  the  Earth,  and  its  density 
is  calculated  as  seven- tenths  that  of  the  Earth. 

In  as  much  as  the  planet  is  further  from  the  Sun 
than  the  Earth  so  it  is  behind  in  evolutionary  period. 
Mars  is  probably  at  that  period  corresponding  to  the 
archaean  age  of  the  Earth  when  the  primary  or  Lau- 
rentian  system  of  rocks  was  formed. 

A  difference  of  opinion  exists  among  observers  as  to 
there  being  water  on  Mars.  Spectra  of  planets  must 
vary  according  to  their  positions  relative  to  the  Sun  and 
the  Earth.  Mars  in  conjunction  and  in  opposition  will 
reflect  solar  light  from  the  hemisphere  proximate  to  the 
Sun,  where  his  atmosphere  will  contain  little  or  no 
water.  In  quadrature,  especially  if  the  planet's  winter 
pole  can  be  viewed,  is  the  most  favorable  position  to 
get  the  spectrum  of  water.  Mars  has  but  one  water 
cycle:  From  surface  water  to  the  cloud,  H20,  thence 
to  the  winter  pole  where  it  manifests  as  a  snow  or  ice 
cap,  H202,  thence  from  the  same,  now  summer  pole, 
through  the  canals  toward  the  then  winter  pole.  Thus 
Mars  is  tearing  up  his  polar  unstratified  rocks  and 
forming  Laurentian  stratifications. 


MARS.  107 

The  snow  caps  at  the  poles  of  Mars  enlarge  during 
their  respective  winters  and  become  smaller  or  entirely 
disappear  during  their  summers.  It  seems  that  in  the 
water  cycle  of  Mars  the  water-vapor  in  the  atmosphere 
and  the  water-liquid  in  canals  seek  the  pole  of  the 
planet  furthest  from  the  Sun.  The  canals  are  filled 
with  water  from  the  melting  snow  cap  which  flows  to- 
ward the  equator  and  crossing  this,  line  flows  toward 
the  opposite  pole.  Concurrently  a  snow  cap  is  being 
formed  at  the  opposite  pole  condensed  from  the  water- 
vapor  in  the  atmosphere.  Lowell  concludes  that  owing 
to  the  flattening  of  the  Martian  poles  the  flow  of  wa- 
ter is  against  gravitation,  that  no  known  natural  law 
accounts  for  its  action,  and  that  the  flow  must  be  ac- 
complished by  artificial  means  directed  by  intelligent 
beings. 

Let  us  see:  Mars  is  evolving  from  the  period  of 
unstratified  rocks,  during  which  condensation  takes 
place  from  the  atmosphere,  molecule  by  molecule,  not 
exclusively  by  the  gravitating  influence  of  the  Martian 
mass,  but  by  the  determining  influence  of  the  gravita- 
tional forces  of  the  solar  body.  Hence  as  the  planet  ro- 
tates on  its  axis  every  part  of  its  surface  must  be  in 
equilibrium  from  the  standpoint  of  solar  static  force, 
level  and  smooth  as  an  ocean  without  waves.  It  is  true 
that  as  the  atmosphere  of  Mars  is  clear  and  hence  does 
not  absorb  the  radiant  energy  of  the  Sun  the  greater 
part  of  this  energy  will  be  transformed  into  electric 
currents,  and  back  polar  currents  neutralizing  near  the 
surface  of  the  planet  will  cause  disturbances,  but  the 
elevations  from  this  cause  will  be  relatively  insignifi- 
cant, as  they  neutralize  near  the  surface  (Fig.  7). 

The  influence  of  the  solar  static  forces  is  the  great 
surface  leveler,  and  any  part  that  is  below  the  surface 


108  MARS. 

of  an  ideal  sphere  will,  until  the  period  is  well  ad- 
vanced, be  filled  up  by  condensing  molecules.  All  points 
on  the  surface  of  a  planet  during  the  period  of  un- 
stratified  rocks  as  measured  by  the  influence  of  the 
static  forces  of  the  Sun  are  equipotential  at  equinoctial 
times.  This  in  general  will  apply  to  the  surface  of 
Mars. 

On  the  top  of  a  terrestrial  mountain  solar  radiations 
are  even  stronger  than  in  a  valley  at  sea  level  but  the 
outward  radiations  from  the  surface  meet  with  so  lit- 
tle resistance  that  radiations  are  not  localized  and  the 
temperature  is  lower  on  the  former.  On  Mars  the  out- 
ward radiations  meet  less  resistance  than  on  the  Earth. 
The  climate  of  Mars  is  not  modified  by  the  cooling  ef- 
fect of  mountains  as  in  the  case  of  the  Earth.  Nor 
will  the  era  of  mountain  building  bring  such,  great 
elevations  as  those  of  the  Earth.  But  delicate  adjust- 
ment, on  the  line  of  demarcation  between  positive  and 
negative  matter,  of  solar  static  influences,  of  radiation 
resistances,  of  radiation  pressures,  and  chemical  re- 
sponses evidently  produce  the  same  results  in  Mars  as 
on  the  Earth  at  the  same  period  of  evolution. 

The  planets  are  each  in  a  state  of  equilibrium  just 
as  cometary  matter  is  in  a  state  of  equilibrium  at  each 
stage  of  its  progress  toward  the  Sun.  The  comet 
changes  according  to  the  dominant  degree  of  the  solar 
body  over  its  matter,  and  so  it  is  with  planets.  When 
some  great  crisis  occurs  in  the  solar  system  such  as  a 
halt  in  the  processes  of  ionization  by  matter  reaching 
a  maximum  of  diffusion,  planetary  matter  will  act  by 
intrinsic  force  and  thus  promote  concentration  up  to 
a  state  of  equilibrium.  Otherwise  each  step  must  be 
initiated  by  solar  influence  and  this  step  signifies  a  de- 
gree of  solar  dominance  which  in  turn  signifies  solar 
approximation,  or  increase  of  solar  power. 


MARS.  *     109 

Watch  the  effects  of  solar  static  forces  on  the  comet. 
They  consist  of  a  push  and  a  pull,  the  head  being 
pulled  as  the  body  approaches  the  Sun  and  the  tail 
relatively  pushed;  while  on  departing  the  tail  is  pushed 
and  the  head  relatively  pulled.  Now  mark  the  fact 
of  the  tail  of  the  comet  being  always  furthest  from  the 
Sun,  and  mark  the  conception  that  the  atmosphere  of 
the  planet  is  its  tail. 

Hence  our  conclusions:  When  the  north  pole  of  the 
planet  is  presented  to  the  Sun  the  upper  atmosphere  is 
actively  or  relatively  pushed  towards  the  south  carry- 
ing the  water  vapor  with  it,  which  is  then  condensed  as 
snow.  The  lower  atmosphere  also  has  the  same  tend- 
ency but  the  attraction  between  it  and  the  positive 
solids  holds  it.  When  the  south  pole  is  presented  to  the 
Sun  the  opposite  movements  occur.  The  seasonal  turn- 
ing of  the  poles  of  a  planet  towards  the  Sun  dis- 
turbs the  equilibrium  of  the  planet's  system,  and  one 
of  the  elements  of  restoration  of  the  balance  is  water 
flowing  towards  the  opposite  pole. 

It  is  probable  that  the  key  to  the  explanation  of  these 
extraordinary  phenomena  is  to  be  found  in  the  constit- 
uent character  of  water  itself.  In  general  water  has 
the  chemical  composition  of  H20.  This  is  undoubtedly 
the  composition  of  water  in  an  electrolyte  when  it  seeks 
the  cathode  as  a  cation  body.  On  the  other  hand  water 
as  snow  or  ice  has  probably  a  composition  of  H202. 
This  makes  it  an  anion  body.  The  importance  of  this  is 
that  the  water  in  the  canals  of  Mars  molecularly  mixed 
with  oxygen  as  it  comes  from  the  snow  caps  may  be 
considered  as  a  negative  substance,  and  as  such  is  re- 
pelled by  the  Sun  as  the  tail  of  a  comet  is  repelled. 
Each  oxygen  atom  in  solution  dominates  a  water  mole- 
cule and  the  physical  combination  being  negative  is  as 
a  particle  of  the  tail  of  a  comet.  Or,  we  may  consider 


110  MARS. 

the  combination  as  a  diminutive  comet,  the  oxygen  of 
the  molecule  being  the  tail  and  the  hydrogen  of  the 
molecule  being  the  head.  Thus  the  water  in  the  canals 
of  Mars  through  its  intimate  mixture  with  oxygen  is 
relatively  repelled  by  the  influence  of  the  static  forces 
of  the  Sun — by  the  squeeze  of  the  concentrated  field. 
The  Martian  canals  carry  fresh  water  well  oxygenized 
and  as  a  body  is  negative  in  quality.  It  is  probable 
that  salt  water  would  remain  at  the  Martian  poles. 

Whether  human  beings  or  others  of  like  intelligence 
exist  on  Mars  or  not  the  Martian  canals  are  in  general 
constructed  by  the  forces  of  nature.  From  the  natural 
canals  mankind,  if  he  exist,  may  direct  irrigation 
ditches,  or  may  even  direct  the  particular  courses  of 
the  canals,  but  the  travel  of  the  water  for  over  three 
thousand  miles  at  the  rate  of  fifty-one  miles  a  day  is 
the  work  of  solar  energy.  As  to  the  Martian  psychozoic 
period  having  already  arrived  when  we  look  for  geologi- 
cal corroborating  evidence,  we  find  it  wanting.  For 
mountains  were  evolved  before  man,  and  the  mountain 
building  period  has  not  yet  dawned  on  Mars,  simply 
because  the  solar  radiant  forces  are  not  sufficiently 
intense  to  undertake  the  work,  and  the  stratified  rocks 
are  not  sufficiently  thick  to  give  these  forces  the  op- 
portunity. This  planet  is  productive  of  vegetation  plen- 
tiful but  primitive,  perhaps  even  of  fauna  of  an  in- 
vertebrate order,  but  there  is  no  convincing  evidence  of 
an  intelligent  vertebrated  animal  any  more  than  there 
is  of  a  mountain  range  for  him  to  climb.  A  thought, 
however,  in  an  opposite  direction  occurs.  The  geologi- 
cal periods  on  Mars  must  be  longer  than  those  on  the 
Earth,  being  slower  in  the  progress  of  development  as 
the  planet  is  the  more  distant  from  the  Sun.  Does 
animal  and  vegetable  life  evolve  with  corresponding 
rates  of  progression  on  the  two  planets  relative  to  their 


MARS.  Ill 

respective  geologic  periods,  as  indicated  by  the  con- 
tempory  stages  on  the  Earth?  The  primary  evolvment 
of  the  vegetable  or  animal  cell  must  universally  corre- 
spond to  a  specific  geologic  period,  both  being  respon- 
sive to  a  degree  of  solar  dominance,  but  after  the  bridge 
is  crossed  from  the  molecule  to  the  cell  the  latter 
assumes  the  property  or  function  of  propagation,  and 
karyokinesis  depends  on  local  conditions  and  to  a  large 
measure  is  independent  of  solar  energy,  and  this  inde- 
pendence is  progressive  as  the  cell  marches  toward  a 
higher  organism.  It  is  possible  that  relatively  a  psy- 
chozoic  era  may  appear  on  Mars  at  an  earlier  geological 
date  than  on  the  Earth.  However,  it  must  be  con- 
cluded from  the  major  evidence  that  Mars  is  in  a  state 
of  preparation  which  is  nearing  completion  as  an  abode 
of  man. 

Our  deductions  conform  with  the  conclusions  of  Low- 
ell as  regards  the  character  of  the  polar  caps,  and 
canals,  and  the  presence  of  vegetation.  He  overlooks  the 
dominance  of  the  Sun  as  a  factor  in  driving  water  from 
the  summer  pole  of  Mars,  and  assigns  an  unwarranted 
importance  to  the  size  of  the  planet  in  influencing  evo- 
lution. Without  the  guiding  star  of  a  fundamental 
hypothesis  an  opinion  however  brilliant  cannot  be  con- 
clusive. Induction  must  be  indorsed  by  deduction. 

We  find  that:  Mars  is  younger  than  the  Earth  in 
evolutionary  period  as  he  is  more  distant  from  the  Sun ; 

(2)  Mars  is  a  type  of  a  planet  at  the  end  of  the  period 
of  unstratified  rocks;  (3)  the  planet  has  no  mountains 
because  stratification  is  confined  to  the  polar  regions; 

(4)  the  psychozoic  period  has  not  yet  arrived. 

We  conclude  that  Mars  owing  to  its  position  has  a 
relatively  larger  atmosphere  than  the  Earth,  that  the 
air  is  less  dense,  clearer,  offers  less  resistance  to  solar 


112  MARS. 

radiations,  and  that  its  molecules  are  more  negative. 
We  conclude  that  Mars  has  relatively  less  water  than 
the  Earth,  and  that  the  atoms  of  the  water  molecule 
are  less  firmly  bound  than  those  of  terrestrial  water. 
Water  on  Mars  may  even  differentiate  from  that  of  the 
Earth  in  its  ionic  constituents,  forming  a  molecular 
equilibrate  of  larger  size  and  of  less  positive  quality 
and  its  atoms  may  even  exist  as  molecules  in  the  at- 
mosphere. Notwithstanding  these  possible  differentia- 
tions water  on  Mars  will  possess  the  same  general  prop- 
erties as  water  on  the  Earth,  because  of  a  correspond- 
ing difference  in  extrinsic  conditions. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
The  Planets. 

The  interpretation  of  facts  relative  to  planets  leads 
us  to  interesting  conclusions. 

Mercury.  The  intensity  of  the  gravitational  force  of 
the  Sun  has  stopped  the  planet's  axial  rotation,  has 
driven  off  its  negative  atmosphere  and  even  its  water. 
Perhaps  the  intensity  of  thermic  radiations  favors  the 
presence  of  hydrogen  gas,  on  the  other  hand  the  Sun 
by  his  gravitational  force  may  have  captured  this  gas. 
One  can  picture  the  bare  valleys  of  Mercury  covered 
with  the  bleaching  bones  of  by-gone  generations.  The 
planet  has  become  cationized.  Whatever  anion  elements 
remain  must  be  in  the  form  of  a  tail.  Mercury  being 
in  his  dotage  may  have  the  embryonic  habit  of  a  comet, 
in  the  form  of  a  pendant  of  negative  gaseous  matter, 
which  would  be  detected  neither  by  telescope  nor  spec- 
troscope, as  it  would  remain  in  the  shadow  of  the 
planet.  .*••  \ 

Venus.  Venus  is  an  interesting  planet.  Schroeter 
concluded  that  the  planet  near  its  poles  has  mountains 
30  miles  high.  The  author's  reasoning  leads  to  the 
conclusion  that  50  to  100  miles  is  a  fair  general  esti- 
mate of  the  height  of  the  mountains  of  Venus.  The 
reasoning  is  made  plain  when  comparing  this  planet 
with  the  Earth.  The  high  albedo  of  Venus  indicates 
hydrogen  or  other  positive  gas  in  its  upper  atmosphere. 
Calculated  from  a  unit  of  surface  Venus  is  considered  as 
five  times  brighter  than  Mercury,  the  albedo  being 
0.92,  and  even  higher  than  that  of  cloud  which  is  0.72. 


114  VENUS. 

These  figures  clearly  preclude  cloud  as  being  the  cause 
of  the  intense  reflection.  The  only  explanation  accept- 
able is  that  her  atmosphere  contains  a  positive  gas. 
Thus  relatively  little  light  and  perhaps  little  heat 
reaches  the  solid  surface  of  Venus. 

If  Venus  has  lost  its  axial  rotation  the  planet's  cell 
life  must  have  a  limited  area.  The  evidence  favors 
the  presence  of  water.  Hence  in  the  deep  valleys  on 
the  hemisphere  proximate  to  the  Sun  the  conditions  may 
still  be  favorable  to  vegetable  and  animal  life.  Water 
and  mountains  are  evidently  present.  Oxygen  also  may 
be  there  in  the  lower  atmosphere.  However,  a  planet 
which  keeps  the  same  hemisphere  facing  the  Sun  will 
have  processes  initiated  which  will  drive  water  and  the 
negative  gases  to  the  opposite  hemisphere,  where  an- 
other essential  to  life,  the  incidence  of  solar  radiating 
energy,  is  absent. 

Venus  is  the  earth 's  elder  sister.  Mercury  is  their 
elder  brother,  the  first  born  of  the  present  family. 
Other  planets  may  have  preceded  Mercury.  The  Earth 
is  in  the  prime  of  life  and  at  the  period  when  anion 
and  cation  forces  equilibrate  in  the  highest  type  of  mo- 
lecular construction.  Mars  being  next  is  maturing, 
while  the  outer  planets  range  from  infancy  upwards, 
and  are  partially  under  anion  influences.  In  all  cases 
the  solar  forces  dominate  the  evolutionary  changes, 
each  planetary  body  being  intrinsically  in  equilibrium; 
and  moreover  each  planet  would  stay  in  its  present  state 
but  for  an  alteration  in  the  relation  to  the  Sun's 
forces. 

The  Asteroidal  Interspace.  Bode's  law  is  correct  in 
principle.  In  the  present  evolutionary  stage  of  the 
solar  system  it  has  two  breaks  in  its  application.  The 
first  is  in  the  case  of  the  interspace  occupied  by  the 
asteroids,  and  the  second  is  in  the  case  of  Neptune. 


THE  ASTEROIDAL  SPACE.  115 

To  properly  interpret  the  facts  we  must  reach  funda- 
mental principles.  Let  us  go  back  to  the  nebulous  state, 
or  better  still,  to  that  ideal  condition  immediately  suc- 
ceeding a  creation  in  which  all  matter  is  in  extreme  dif- 
fusion, and  without  particular  mass  form.  We  have  al- 
ready traced  the  then  active  processes  towards  a  con- 
centrated and  positive  center,  and  towards  a  diffused 
and  negative  circumference.  It  is  evident  that  as  the 
more  central  part  of  the  system  becomes  condensed  neg- 
ative matter  will  be  squeezed  outward  until  it  reaches 
a  position  of  equilibrium.  Being  negative  the  repelled 
matter  is  also  repelled  by  the  negative  matter  of  the 
circumference  of  the  system.  The  ejected  matter  is  thus 
between  two  repellant  forces.  This  matter  will  have  a 
tendency  to  divide,  the  more  positive  part  becoming  me- 
teorites or  meteor  streams. 

The  Sun  being  a  growing  body  with  increasing  forces 
the  point  where  the  squeezed  out  matter  finds  an  equilib- 
rium will  gradually  move  outward.  First  of  all  the 
mass  of  Mercury  contracts  and  Venus  collects  the 
squeezed  out  material.  Concurrently  with  mass  con- 
traction the  orbit  of  Mercury  is  contracting,  that  of 
Venus  is  not.  Hence  the  space  between  Mercury  and 
Venus  increases,  a  miniature  asteroidal  interspace  oc- 
curs, and  a  disturbance  of  Bode's  law  is  the  conse- 
quence. 

As  the  forces  of  the  Sun  increase  Venus  is  more  dis- 
tinctly brought  under  subjection,  the  squeezing  out 
process  is  applied  to  this  planet,  and  contraction  of  the 
orbit  is  initiated.  As  Mercury  has  approached  a  maxi- 
mum condensation  and  a  maximum  cationization  the 
rate  of  orbital  contraction  decreases.  Hence  Venus  ap- 
proaches Mercury  and  recedes  from  the  Earth.  The 
disturbance  of  Bode 's  law  moves  a  step  outward.  The 


116  THE  ASTEROID AL  SPACE. 

next  localization  of  the  disturbance  is  between  the 
Earth  and  Mars,  thence  to  its  present  situation.  Each 
step  marks  the  boundary  between  the  sphere  of  domi- 
nance of  positive  and  the  sphere  of  dominance  of  nega- 
tive forces  within  the  solar  system. 

Mars  occupies  an  equilibrated  position  in  the  solar 
system  as  a  body  in  which  cation  forces  distinctly  pre- 
dominate. Jupiter  occupies  an  equilibrated  position  in 
which  cation  forces  are  distinctly  counteracted  by  anion 
influences.  Both  of  these  planets  are  contracting  and 
cationizing  under  the  increasing  influences  of  the  gravi- 
tational forces  of  the  Sun.  These  processes  reach  a 
maximum  which  Mars  is  approaching.  The  proc- 
esses in  Jupiter  are  an  evolvement  from  infancy!  Con- 
currently with  these  processes  there  is  contraction  of 
the  planetary  orbits,  which  in  the  future  will  be  rela- 
tively greater  in  the  case  of  Jupiter.  Hence  Jupiter 
will  gradually  approach  Mars.  When  the  inner  planets 
have  reached  their  maximum  of  condensation  and  at 
the  same  time  increased  their  positive  forces,  and  de- 
creased their  negative  they  will  have  increased  their 
reinforcement  of  the  Sun's  gravitational  forces  acting 
on  Jupiter.  Also  from  the  initiation  of  a  cationiza- 
tion  process  it  is  evident  that  gravitational  forces  will 
increasingly  meet  with  a  greater  response  on  the  part 
of  Jupiter.  Whereas  in  the  case  of  the  inner  planets 
the  maximum  of  condensation  having  been  approached 
the  rate  of  increase  of  the  reaction  will  be  lessened. 
Jupiter  will  approach  Mars,  the  asteroidal  interspace 
will  be  eliminated,  the  negative  matter  will  be  squeezed 
out,  and  the  asteroidal  bodies  will  join  the  procession 
of  Jovial  satellites,  or  more  likely  be  added  to  the  mass 
of  Jupiter.  An  asteroidal  space  will  then  develop  be- 
tween Jupiter  and  Saturn. 


JUPITER.  117 

The  asteroidal  interspace  is  occupied  by  an  atmos- 
phere common  to  the  inner  planets.  This  atmosphere 
occupies  a  point  of  equilibrium  which  progressively 
moves  outward  marking  evolutionary  changes  in  the 
solar  system. 

Jupiter.  The  quantity  of  matter  of  this  planet  excels 
the  sum  of  the  quantities  of  all  the  others.  Why? 
We  must  bear  in  mind  that  at  the  beginning  of  the 
evolutionary  processes  of  the  planets  that  the  Sun  was 
relatively  a  small  body;  that  as  the  Sun  gained  in  force 
particles  dominated  by  negative  force  were  squeezed  out- 
ward until  reaching  an  equilibrated  position;  that  the 
circumferential  part  of  the  solar  system  had  no  attrac- 
tion for  these  particles  but  rather  repulsion;  and  that 
Jupiter  occupies  a  midway  position  between  the  sphere 
where  positive  matter  distinctly  dominates  and  the 
sphere  where  negative  matter  distinctly  dominates. 
Moreover  in  a  circular  mass  of  nebulous  matter  Jupi- 
ter having  a  greater  orbit  would  have  a  larger  sphere, 
from  which  to  condense  his  mass,  than  the  inner  planets. 

Mark  the  differential  arrangement  of  matter.  That 
inward  from  Jupiter  condensation  will  largely  occur  in 
the  form  of  metallic  substances;  that  outward  from 
Jupiter  anion  predominance  is  opposed  to  condensa- 
tion; and  that  in  Jupiter  where  anion  and  cation  mat- 
ter equalize  the  condensation  will  be  almost  exclusively 
crystalline.  The  inner  planets  are  relatively  small  be- 
cause their  orbital  spheres  are  small.  The  planets  ex- 
ternal to  Jupiter  are  smaller  than  Jupiter  because 
their  anion  constituents  oppose  condensation  and  be- 
cause of  their  distances  from  the  Sun.  Jupiter  is  rela- 
tively large  because  most  of  his  material  is  capable 
of  crystallizing.  Mars  is  relatively  small  because  his 
orbital  space  is  a  remnant  of  the  inner  planetary  space 


118  JUPITER. 

where  cation  matter  distinctly  predominates.     Mercury 
is  small  because  his  orbital  space  is  small. 

Furthermore  Jupiter  has  been  a  growing  planet.  All 
the  planets  are  condensing  and  contracting  under  the 
growing  influence  of  the  Sun,  and  this  influence  affects 
Jupiter.  But,  the  lines  of  force  emanating  from  the 
Sun  becoming  continuously  more  concentrative  squeeze 
out,  of  the  solar  field  embracing  the  inner  planets, 
particles  which  are  intrinsically  negative.  These  col- 
lect first  in  the  asteroidal  sphere,  but  afterwards  they 
are  pushed  further  outwards.  The  asteroidal  field  is  a 
source  of  supplies  which  feed  the  great  Jupiter.  The 
contraction  of  his  orbit  and  the  direct  influence  of 
the  lines  of  force  of  the  Sun  are  the  elements  which 
stimulate  the  flow  of  this  matter  to  his  open  hand. 
He  sifts  the  material,  condenses  the  relatively  positive 
part,  and  by  his  own  lines  of  force  repels  the  relatively 
negative.  Truly  Jupiter  is  growing  and  his  mass  even 
excels  what  he  is  credited  with.  Jupiter  is  approach- 
ing his  maximum  growth  and  the  farther  planets  will 
yet  approximate  Jovial  dimensions. 

Jupiter  has  a  phenomenon  in  a  great  red  spot.  It 
marks  an  axial  rotation  which  is  relatively  slower  than 
surrounding  gaseous  matter.  It  behaves  as  if  it  marked 
the  location  of  a  high  mountain  slowly  changing;  but 
Jupiter  has  not  arrived  at  that  evolutionary  stage, 
which  would  permit  us  to  think  that  he  is  engaged  in 
mountain  building.  The  most  plausible  explanation 
of  the  phenomenon  is  that  Jupiter  has  absorbed  an 
asteroid,  that  it  is  resting  on  his  solid  surface,  and 
is  being  gradually  leveled  down  by  his  forces. 

The  clouds  of  Jupiter  are  not  subject  to  solar  in- 
fluences as  clouds  in  the  atmospheres  of  the  inner 
planets.  Why?  Simply  because  they  are  composed 


JUPITER.  119 

of  positive  and  negative  matter,  perhaps  of  the  hydro- 
gen and  oxygen  types,  not  chemically  united,  because 
the  solar  lines  of  force  are  not  intensified  sufficiently 
for  a  water  equilibrium.  For  the  same  reason  the 
albedo  of  Jupiter  is  high,  for  a  positive  gas  possesses 
high  reflective  qualities. 

The  volume  of  Jupiter  is  1309  times  that  of  the 
Earth.  The  mass  is  given  as  317  times  that  of  the 
Earth;  and  the  density  as  one-fourth  that  of  the  Earth. 

The  mass  of  Jupiter  is  calculated  from  his  perturb- 
ation of  the  asteroids.  This  indicates  the  intensity  of 
his  gravitational  radiations  or  weight.  Weight  is  con- 
fined to  a  reaction  between  positive  forces.  It  has  no 
direct  relation  to  the  negative  or  anion  matter  of  the 
body,  nor  to  the  ether  that  is  bound  by  the  molecular 
forces. 

We  concluded  that  Jupiter  has  been  mainly  built  up 
by  the  process  of  crystallization,  which  requires  the 
presence  of  equal  amounts  of  positive  and  negative 
matter.  Ether  is  polarized  in  the  molecular  polar 
fields.  We  concluded  that  the  inner  planets  were 
evolved  by  the  process  of  crystallization  and  metallic 
condensations;  and  that  the  constituents  of  the  Sun 
were  largely  cation.  It  is  evident  that  under  these  con- 
ditions the  conception  of  mass  and  that  of  density  must 
be  altered.  If  the  red  spot  of  Jupiter  is  an  asteroidal 
body  resting  on  his  surface,  then  Jupiter  has  an  im- 
mense solid  body  relatively  lighter  than  the  solid  bodies 
of  the  inner  planets  chiefly  on  account  of  the  scarcity 
of  metallic  deposits,  but  also  because  of  the  ether  bound 
during  the  process  of  crystallization. 

Planets  undoubtedly  have  relative  differential  weight, 
just  as  unit  volumes  of  different  material  have  different 
weights. 


120  JUPITER. 

The  axial  rotation  of  Jupiter  is  accomplished  in  9.55°. 
The  day  is  shorter  at  the  equator  than  at  higher  lati- 
tudes. Bright  white  spots  rotate  more  quickly  than 
dark  ones  in  the  same  latitudes.  Belts  have  a  different 
speed  of  rotation.  According  to  Lowell,  the  bright 
equatorial  belt  lies  exactly  on  the  equator  and  its  posi- 
tion is  not  affected  by  the  planet's  aspect  to  the  Sun. 
The  dark  belts  are  cherry  red  and  shine  partly  by  in- 
trinsic light — the  self  luminosity  of  Jupiter  is  a  dull  red 
glow.  There  is  an  alternate  brightening  and  fading, 
broadening  and  narrowing  of  the  north  and  south 
tropical  belts  which  manifest  during  a  succession  of 
years. 

The  explanation  of  these  phenomena  appears  to  be 
as  follows:  The  atmosphere  of  Jupiter  consists  of 
positive  and  negative  gases,  the  common  boundary  (see 
Chapter  Period  of  Cell  Life)  not  having  been  estab- 
lished, and  the  conditions  for  water  equilibrium  not 
being  attained.  These  gases  may,  to  some  extent,  dif- 
fuse, but  the  active  forces  largely  separate  them  into 
regional  belts.  The  negative  gases  will  absorb  the  solar 
radiations,  will  appear  dark,  and  will  in  turn  emit  the 
absorbed  energy  as  red  radiations,  thus  appearing  as 
self  luminous.  The  positive  gases,  probably  hydrogen, 
will  reflect  light  and  appear  bright,  hence  are  not  self 
luminous,  which  they  would  be  if  Jupiter  were  a  fiery 
furnace.  The  central  belt  is  a  positive  gas,  as  that  is 
lighter  than  the  negative  owing  to  the  minuteness  of  its 
molecules. 

With  regard  to  the  differential  rotatory  velocity: 
Jupiter  revolves  in  his  orbit  at  the  behest  of  the  electric 
currents  of  the  Sun.  The  Sun  sends  out  gravitational 
lines  of  force  which  diffuse  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
square  of  the  distance  traveled.  The  action  of  the 


JUPITER.  121 

forces  of  the  Sun  is  through  a  medium  and  each  par- 
ticle acted  upon  at  whatever  point  is  acted  upon  by 
the  particle  preceding.  An  atom  of  hydrogen  and  an 
atom  of  oxygen  are  influenced  by  the  Sun's  forces, 
but  really  it  is  the  molecules  of  the  ether  which  are  in 
contact  with  these  atoms  which  act  on  them,  and  these 
contact  molecules  act  in  obedience  to  the  law  that  forces 
react  with  an  intensity  inversely  as  the  square  of  dis- 
tance. Hence  the  reaction  between  the  ether  and  the 
atoms  of  the  gases  in  the  atmosphere  of  Jupiter  is 
differential  in  accordance  with  the  construction  of  the 
atoms.  Positive  gases  will  respond  more  intensely  than 
negative  to  the  forces  of  the  Sun.  Mark  the  adhesive- 
ness of  positive  matter  in  general.  The  solar  lines  of 
force  act  on  the  proximate  surface  of  Jupiter  as  an 
inhibitory  force  to  orbital  revolution,  and  act  differ- 
entially in  degree  on  the  particles  of  the  atmosphere. 
This  conclusion  does  not  accord  with  the  conception  of 
moment  of  momentum.  Jupiter  travels  in  his  orbit  at 
the  rate  of  eight  miles  per  second,  and  rolls  as  on  a 
floor  made  up  of  the  terminal  lines  of  force  of  the  Sun, 
and  the  Jovial  material  has  differential  adhesiveness. 
The  rotatory  speed  of  any  particle  in  the  atmosphere  of 
Jupiter  is  directly  proportional  to  the  inhibitory  ac- 
tion. The  real  length  of  the  Jovial  day  may  be  cal- 
culated from  the  time  it  takes  the  red  spot  to  rotate. 

Jupiter  in  part  of  his  orbit  passes  through  solar  lines 
of  repulsion.  These,  however,  have  the  same  effect 
as  those  of  attraction  on  his  axial  rotation.  It  is  the 
direction  of  the  lines  of  force  which  is  the  essential  to 
inhibition  as  we  will  see  in  considering  the  rotatory 
direction  of  Neptune. 

The  periodical  changes  in  the  relative  brightness  and 
dimensions  of  the  north  and  south  tropical  belts  must 


122  SATURN. 

be  seasonal.  The  general  law  being  that  the  more 
negative  matter  is  repelled  from  the  pole  presented  to 
the  Sun,  that  is  from  the  summer  pole.  Jupiter  has  not 
altogether  forgotten  his  cometary  ancestry  and  still 
makes  an  effort  to  form  a  tail  at  the  pole  relatively  dis- 
tant from  the  Sun. 

Saturn.  The  extraordinary  part  of  this  planet  is  his 
system  of  rings.  Several  years  ago  the  author  drew  a 
plan  of  the  solar  system  in  which  he  pictured  Saturn 
as  capturing  a  comet.  This  was  a  conception  not  based 
on  deduction,  but  rather  in  the  nature  of  a  guess,  and 
he  afterwards  rejected  it:  (1)  Because  the  capture  of 
a  comet  would  partake  of  the  character  of  an  accident 
and  the  author  believes  that  no  part  of  the  solar  system 
is  built  up  by  accidents;  (2)  a  comet  has  not  as  much 
positive  matter  in  its  construction  as  the  rings  of  Saturn 
evidently  have  in  theirs;  (3)  cometary  matter  does  not 
equilibrate  as  near  a  planet  as  do  the  rings  of  Saturn. 
There  is,  however,  this  consideration:  Comets  change, 
getting  less  negative  and  losing  material  as  they  ap- 
proach the  Sun,  and  more  negative  and  gaining  material 
as  they  leave  the  Sun.  Under  any  circumstance  for  a 
comet  to  be  in  the  exact  state  which  would  enable  it 
to  equilibrate  as  the  rings  of  Saturn  would  be  in  the 
nature  of  an  accident  which  the  solar  system  knoweth 
not.  Moreover,  the  building  up  of  a  planet's  system 
(the  planet  and  its  satellites)  occurs  by  the  acquisition 
of  matter  of  central  origin  and  not  of  circumferential 
origin. 

We  concluded  that  Jupiter  gathered  matter  which 
was  being  eliminated  from  the  asteroidal  interspace, 
sifting  it,  and  absorbing  the  more  positive  particles  and 
rejecting  the  more  negative.  Hence  the  stream  con- 
tinued outward  from  Jupiter.  Besides  Jupiter  is  sift- 
ing his  own  gaseous  matter,  consolidating  part  and 


SATURN.  123 

eliminating  part,  the  latter  being  too  negative  for  the 
concentration  of  Jupiter's  lines  of  force  joins  the 
stream  outward.  Particle  by  particle  this  outward 
stream  seeks  an  equilibrated  position.  The  Saturn  sys- 
tem absorbs  them,  and  does  so  differentially.  Some  of 
those  particles  constitute  the  inner  ring,  these  having 
the  same  molecular  type  as  oxygen  ions  (atoms),  or 
perhaps  they  are  more  negative.  They  transmit  light, 
hence  appear  dark  from  the  terrestrial  viewpoint.  Other 
particles  build  up  the  middle  ring.  These  are  probably 
of  the  nature  of  positive  ions.  As  compared  with  the 
molecular  quantities  of  the  inner  ring  they  are  as  the 
hydrogen  molecule  to  that  of  oxygen.  They  possess 
properties  resistant  to  radiation,  hence  reflect  light  and 
the  mass  appears  bright  from  the  Earth.  Other  par- 
ticles constitute  the  outer  ring.  They  must  be  very 
minute  ions,  probably  of  positive  character  and  so  dif- 
fuse as  to  be  semi-transparent,  partly  absorbing  and 
partly  reflecting  light. 

We  have  in  the  most  general  way  considered  the  ulti- 
mate constituents  of  the  rings.  Physically,  matter  will 
have  a  tendency  to  assume  the  form  of  a  cometary 
character.  A  group  of  particles,  whether  positive  or 
negative  as  a  whole,  will  develop  a  relatively  positive 
head  and  a  relatively  negative  tail.  The  head  will  lead 
and  the  tail  will  follow  in  the  course  of  the  group 
round  the  planet,  that  is  the  head  will  be  inhibited  more 
intensely  than  the  tail  in  the  orbital  velocity,  when  on 
the  surface  of  the  planet  proximate  to  the  Sun.  Such 
groups  constitute  the  tores  referred  to  by  Lowell.  We 
have  elsewhere  shown  that  even  a  molecule  of  oxygen  in 
the  terrestrial  atmosphere  tends  to  the  cometary  form 
by  developing  a  positive  pole  attracted  by  the  solid 
mass  of  the  Earth,  and  a  negative  pole  which  is  in- 


124  SATURN. 

directly  repelled.  The  rings  of  Saturn  mark  a  period 
in  the  evolution  of  a  planet.  They  will  flatten  and  be- 
come as  the  belts  of  Jupiter,  the  more  positive  matter 
being  retained  by  the  planet  and  the  more  negative 
matter  being  eliminated.  The  latter  will  seek  an 
equilibrium  further  out  and  may  construct  a  ring- 
system  for  Uranus. 

What  we  wish  to  insist  on  is  that  each  particle  ac- 
cording to  its  concentrativeness  or  diffusibility,  its 
cation  or  anion  qualities,  finds  an  equilibrated  position 
amidst  the  concentrating  lines  of  force  emanating  from 
the  Sun,  supplemented  by  lines  of  similar  character 
emanating  from  the  planetary  body.  The  equilibrated 
position  of  the  particle  refers  to  its  distance  from  the 
Sun  and  its  distance  from  the  planetary  body.  The 
velocity  of  the  particle  in  its  course  round  the  planet 
is  the  result  of  the  action  of  the  electric  currents  of  the 
Sun  on  the  matter  of  Saturn,  causing  an  orbital  revo- 
lution, and  an  inhibition  by  the  static  forces  of  the  Sun, 
which  results  in  an  axial  rotation.  Given  a  constant 
amount  of  current  electric  induction  acting  on  the  body, 
and  a  constant  amount  of  inhibitory  solar  static  force, 
then  the  relative  velocity  will  be  according  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  particle,  that  is  to  the  intensity  of  the  free 
force  of  the  particle,  positive  if  the  particle  takes  the 
positive  direction,  negative  if  it  takes  the  negative 
direction.  In  the  case  of  planets  the  positive  direction 
only  has  to  be  considered — the  negative  elements  follow- 
ing the  positive  but  retarding  their  speed. 

From  the  viewpoint  of  the  Earth  matter  in  the 
atmospheres  of  the  outer  planets  is  observed  to  rotate 
with  differential  speed.  But  the  greater  the  apparent 
velocity  the  less  the  real  velocity  on  the  proximate  sur- 
face of  the  planet,  for  the  real  motion  is  in  the  planet- 


URANUS.  125 

ary  orbit,  and  the  motion  of  the  axial  rotation  in  the 
semi-circle  proximate  to  the  Sun  has  to  be  substracted 
from  the  orbital  velocity  of  the  planet.  On  the  distant 
semi-circle  the  opposite  occurs.  Matter  on  the  proxi- 
mate side  of  Jupiter  for  instance,  is  said  to  be  retarded 
about  one-tenth  of  its  orbital  speed. 

Uranus.  When  we  go  back  to  the  cyclic  period  of 
nebulous  matter  in  circular  motion  we  find  condensa- 
tion occurring  in  the  solar  system  from  within  outward. 
Each  planet  must  condense  the  matter  from  a  sphere 
commensurate  with  the  length  of  its  orbit.  Hence  the 
volume  of  each  would  normally  increase  with  the  dis- 
tance from  the  Sun.  But  the  part  of  the  matter  which 
inherently  seeks  condensation  is  the  positive,  and  in  a 
unit  space  positive  matter  decreases  from  within  out- 
wards. According  to  Bode's  law  the  interspaces  in- 
crease with  the  distance  from  the  Sun,  which  means  that 
they  increase  with  the  relative  increase  of  negative  mat- 
ter. Uranus  is  probably  the  only  planet  which,  as  a  di- 
rect result  of  nebulous  conditions,  has  normal  volume. 
The  inner  planets  have  lost  matter  by  disintegrating 
processes,  Jupiter  and  Saturn  have  concurrently  been 
built  up  at  the  expense  of  the  volumes  of  the  inner 
planets,  and  as  we  will  see,  Neptune  is  an  infant. 
Uranus  is  a  planet  direct  from  the  nebulous  state  with- 
out modification  by  secondary  processes. 

Uranus  is  remarkable  for  his  immense  atmosphere. 
In  fact  some  observers  suppose  that  no  solid  matter 
exists.  This  undoubtedly  is  a  mistake.  The  process  of 
crystallization  has  likely  given  Uranus  a  solid  mass,  al- 
though the  solar  lines  of  force  must  be  quite  diffuse 
at  his  distance.  The  lines  of  force  emanating  from  his 
mass  are  not  sufficiently  intense  to  condense  his  satellites 
into  bodies  giving  electric  responses  of  positive  char- 
acter, for  they  act  as  negative  bodies  and  have  retro- 


126  NEPTUNE. 

grade  movements.  At  this  distance  from  the  Sun 
negative  matter  predominates,  and  the  dominance  is 
more  pronounced  in  the  satellites  than  in  the  planetary 
body.  Hence  in  obedience  to  the  electric  currents  of 
the  Sun  the  satellites  have  a  partial  negative  direction. 
With  further  predominance  of  negative  matter  the 
satellites  would  seek  independent  orbits,  but  at  a  more 
distant  position. 

Neptune.  This  is  the  youngest  as  to  time,  the  last 
in  evolutionary  period,  and  demonstrably  the  outer- 
most and  most  distant  planet  from  the  Sun.  It  is 
reasonable  to  conclude  that  at  present  there  are  nuclei 
of  ultra  Neptune  planetary  bodies.  There  are,  un- 
doubtedly, condensations  partaking  of  the  cometary 
character.  Neptune  partakes  somewhat  of  this  char- 
acter. His  north  pole  probably  bears  the  hereditary 
mark  of  the  head  of  a  comet.  His  retrograde  axial 
rotation  and  his  direct  orbital  revolution  indicates  a 
transitional  process  whereby  Neptune  is  forswearing 
his  past  allegiance  to  negative  authority,  and  is  ren- 
dering homage  to  the  electric  currents  of  the  Sun  by  a 
positive  reaction.  The  induction  lines  emanating  from 
the  solar  static  forces  are  too  diffuse  to  cause  a  direct 
axial  rotation,  but  sufficiently  intense  to  cause  a 
positive  or  north  pole  development,  which,  reacting  with 
the  electric  induction  of  the  Sun,  gives  the  planet  a 
direct  orbital  movement. 

As  the  induction  lines  of  the  static  forces  of  the  Sun 
develop  they  will,  by  their  concentrativeness,  push 
Neptune  outward,  for  h.e  is  still  sufficiently  negative  to 
resist  condensation,  and  thus  the  planet's  position  will 
yet  accord  with  Bode's  law.  At  the  critical  distant 
point  the  planet  will  begin  to  build  up  by  absorption 
from  the  other  planetary  spheres,  and  hence  his  orbit 


NEPTUNE.  127 

will  contract.     The  planets  are  like  a  piece  of  elastic 
with  the  solar  forces  stretching  it  from  both  ends. 

As  the  Sun's  forces  develop  they  will  push  the 
negative  atmosphere  common  to  the  system  further  out. 
The  advancement  of  this  process  may  be  marked  by  the 
evolution  of  matter  from  the  form  of  a  cometary  body 
to  that  of  a  planet.  First  the  comet 's  orbit  will  be 
changed  in  direction.  The  part  of  the  head  of  the  comet 
proximate  to  the  Sun  becomes  the  north  pole  of  the 
planet.  This  will  be  followed  by  an  axial  rotation  and 
the  tail  will  be  twisted  round  the  body  of  the  head, 
the  most  distant  part  of  the  head  becoming  the  south 
pole  of  the  planetary  body.  The  comet's  orbit  then 
changes  to  the  planetary  form,  a  change  concurrent 
with  the  development  of  poles  and  seasons.  The  critical 
point  in  this  change  is  indicated  by  the  polar  changes 
following  the  terrestrial  equinox  March  20.  Thus  the 
comet  precedes  the  planet  and  the  transformation  occurs 
by  the  same  general  processes  common  to  all  evolu- 
tionary phenomena,  that  is,  curtailing  useless  append- 
ages and  developing  others  with  new  properties.  The 
comet  is  a  planet  in  embryo  and  from  the  nascency  to 
the  cineration  there  is  one  general  principle  of  evo- 
lution— cationization. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
Comets. 

The  common  atmosphere  of  the  solar  system  is  the 
Home  of  the  Comets.  A  general  idea  of  the  character 
of  a  cometary  body  may  be  gained  by  supposing  that 
the  Earth's  atmosphere  becomes  separated  from  the 
solid  mass  and  is  injected  into  space.  It  would  assume 
the  form  and  constitution  of  a  comet.  Elementary 
changes  would  follow  the  separation  but  the  relative 
qualities  of  positive  and  negative  matter  in  our  atmos- 
phere would  enable  it  to  maintain  a  cometary  character, 
only  less  negative  than  most  if  not  all  of  the  comets. 
The  physical  form  of  a  molecule  in  our  atmosphere  must 
be  in  a  degree  cometary,  with  a  positive  head  attracted 
by  the  Earth  and  the  more  negative  part  relatively 
repelled  by  the  terrestrial  lines  of  force. 

Let  us  trace  a  comet  from  its  nascent  state  to  its 
dissolution.  There  is  no  purely  positive  or  negative 
matter  of  the  complex  or  ponderable  variety.  The 
only  purely  positive  and  purely  negative  matter  in  the 
universe  are  electric  charges,  and  even  they  are  united 
to  ponderable  matter.  Hence  there  is  some  positive 
matter  in  the  outer  atmosphere.  Just  enough  to  do  the 
binding,  which  is  minimum  in  degree. 

When  two  or  more  of  the  larger  planets  are  in  con- 
junction an  increased  gravitational  pull  is  made  on 
positive  matter  of  the  common  atmosphere,  in  line  with 
these  planets  concentration  occurs,  and  the  nucleus  of 
the  comet  is  formed.  There  is  thus  initiated  a  kinetic 
force  between  the  planets  and  the  Sun  on  the  one  part 
and  the  positive  matter  of  the  comet  on  the  other. 


COMETS  129 

To  understand  cometary  phenomena  two  important 
considerations  are  essential:  (1)  The  ultimate  con- 
stituents of  the  cometary  body;  (2)  the  field  which  it 
travels. 

The  comets  are  many  millions  of  miles  long,  hence 
they  are  drawn  from  a  field  of  differential  concentration 
of  force.  Hence  their  parts  have  differential  diffusi- 
bility.  The  head  is  relatively  concentrated,  the  tail 
relatively  diffused.  Moreover,  different  parts  of  the 
head  and  tail  partake  of  differential  diffusibility.  That 
is  to  say,  that  although  the  whole  mass  of  the  comet  is 
dominated  by  negative  force  the  dominance  increases 
directly  proportional  to  the  distance  from  the  nucleus. 
Again  comets  assume  more  or  less  of  a  common  form. 
Head  (nucleus  and  corona)  and  tail.  Each  ultimate 
particle  of  the  cometary  mass  must  possess  the  same 
elements  of  form.  Further,  each  molecule  of  the  comet 
will  have  a  positive  nucleus  on  which  is  exerted  the 
gravitational  pull,  and  a  negative  pendant  resisting  the 
concentration  of  the  field  and  hence  on  which  there  is 
exerted  a  squeeze  or  an  indirect  repulsion. 

The  field  traversed  towards  the  Sun  is  a  blanket  of 
concentrating  lines  of  force,  which  diffuses  directly 
proportional  to  the  square  of  the  distance  from  the 
solar  body.  The  primary  force  of  this  field  is  the 
positive  free  force  of  the  mass  and  of  the  north  pole 
of  the  Sun.  The  electrolytic  form  of  the  Sun  gives 
his  south  pole  a  negative  force.  This  force  radiates  to 
the  south  of  the  plane  of  the  Sun's  equator.  The  region 
of  the  equatorial  plane,  however,  may  be  within  the  in- 
duction field  of  the  free  force  of  the  main  body  of  the 
Sun.  The  field  has  a  retarding  influence  on  a  particle 
in  direct  proportion  to  the  intensity  of  the  concen- 
tration of  the  field  and  to  the  quantity  of  the  free 


130  COMETS 

negative  force  of  the  particle;  and  the  solar  forces  an 
attracting  influence  directly  proportional  to  the  re- 
acting positive  forces  of  the  particles,  and  inversely  to 
the  square  of  the  distance  from  the  Sun.  We  must 
regard  each  particle  as  a  diminutive  comet,  with  a 
positive  head  presented  to  the  Sun.  It  is  evident  as 
the  particles  have  differential  forces  that  they  will  be 
differentially  retarded  and  some  will  be  ultimately  lost 
to  the  comet.  This  is  according  to  fact.  It  is  also 
evident  as  the  comet  approaches  the  Sun  that  the 
nucleus  will  become  more  dense  and  more  positive, 
and  that  the  more  negative  matter  will)  be  thrown  off 
to  join  the  tail.  The  forces  of  the  field  act  on  the 
cometary  mass  by  a  push  and  pull,  thus  stretching  it 
as  a  piece  of  rubber.  Each  modification  of  the  comet- 
ary body  is  of  the  utmost  significance  as  indicating  a 
general  law  applicable  to  each  body  of  the  solar  system. 

We  will  follow  the  cometary  body  toward  the  Sun. 
The  kinetic  force  is  the  reaction  between  the  positive 
forces  of  the  Sun  and  the  positive  forces  of  the  comet. 
If  we  note  the  fact  that  the  particles  of  the  cometary 
mass  possess  different  degrees  of  negative  dominance 
it  will  be  plain  that  each  will  arrive  at  a  point  where 
the  concentration  of  the  lines  of  force  is  such  as  to 
inhibit  further  progress.  This  applies  to  the  head  as 
well  as  to  the  tail.  A  comet  will  approach  the  Sun  until 
the  squeeze  of  the  lines  of  force  stop  it,  and  this  squeeze 
will  apply  at  the  same  time  to  every  part  of  the  mass. 
Each  particle  of  the  comet  strikes  a  degree  of  resist- 
ance which  will  check  its  course,  when  it  will  swing 
round  the  Sun  as  if  sliding  on  a  curved  smooth  surface 
of  solid  matter.  Each  cometary  particle  pierces  the 
medium  until  reaching  a  curved  line  demarcating  a  de- 
gree of  concentrative  force  equal  to  its  expansile  re- 


COMETS  131 

sistance.  Each  particle  therefore  swings  round  the  Sun 
independently  of  every  other  particle.  The  comet  thus 
reaches  the  sphere  of  the  south  pole  of  the  Sun.  Each 
particle  of  the  cometary  mass  is  maintained  in  its 
relative  position  by  its  relation  to  the  medium,  not  by 
any  cohesive  force  within  the  mass  of  the  comet.  Only 
the  matter  of  the  nucleus  can  possess  cohesive  prop- 
erties. The  solar  lines  of  force  maintain  the  integrity 
of  the  comet,  and  it  is  these  lines  of  force  which  are 
responsible  for  the  intrinsic  changes  of  its  mass — 
attracting  and  concentrating  some  particles  and  squeez- 
ing others  out  of  the  field.  Moreover,  in  the  same 
manner  the  solar  lines  of  force  are  the  chief  factor  in 
maintaining  the  Earth  and  other  planets  as  intact 
bodies,  although  intrinsic  cohesiveness  in  these  is  more 
manifest. 

Within  the  induction  field  of  the  solar  south  pole 
the  kinetic  reaction  is  between  two  negative  forces — the 
negative  force  of  the  solar  south  and  the  negative 
force  of  the  comet.  Comets  thus  depart  from  the  Sun, 
the  tail  leading,  the  head  following.  The  field  is 
in  possession  of  the  free  force  of  the  south  pole  of  the 
Sun.  Hence  the  positive  forces  of  the  solar  body  and 
of  the  north  pole  are  excluded.  The  reactions  between 
the  positive  forces  of  the  comet  and  the  field  being 
kinetically  void  leaves  the  reaction  between  the  negative 
forces  of  the  two  bodies  kinetically  supreme  (Fig.  3). 

We  have  thus  far  dealt  with  simple  forces  of  at- 
traction and  repulsion,  which  in  nowise  account  for  a 
comet's  path  being  otherwise  than  lineal.  The  effort 
to  ascribe  a  revolutionary  power  to  gravitation  is  futile. 
Electric  currents  are  the  only  forces  which  will  direct 
a  body  in  an  orbital  path.  The  futility  of  an  opposite 
consideration  is  obvious. 


132  COMETS 

We  will  consider  the  Halley  comet.  This  body  of 
matter  is  predominantly  negative,  and  obeys  the  law 
of  negative  matter  revolving  reversely  to  positive 
matter  in  the  whirl  of  the  induction  field  of  solar  cur- 
rents. Its  course  in  approaching  the  Sun  is  not  marked 
by  any  pronounced  deviation  from  a  lineal  direction. 
Gravitational  force  is  mainly  the  directive  agent.  The 
orbit,  however,  has  a  slight  curve  caused  by  the  electric 
whirl.  As  it  nears  perihelion  it  gets  more  under  the 
influence  of  the  electric  currents,  at  the  same  time  the 
lineal  attraction  is  inhibited  by  the  squeeze  of  the  con- 
centrated field.  It  is  thus  whirled  into  the  region  of 
the  south  pole,  where  lineal  repulsion  is  asserted.  In 
its  orbital  course  the  reaction  between  the  electric  cur- 
rents and  each  particle  of  the  cometary  mass  being 
directly  proportional  to  the  intensity  of  the  free  (nega- 
tive) force  of  the  particle,  and,  of  course,  inversely  as 
the  square  of  distance,  as  it  whirls  its  tail  round  the 
Sun  it  maintains  its  integrity.  Notwithstanding  that 
distance  is  a  factor  of  decrease  of  intensity  of  the  re- 
action between  the  electric  currents  and  the  cometary 
particles  their  velocity  increases  with  the  distance. 
This  is  due  to  the  increase  in  the  intensity  of  the 
negative  force  of  the  particles  as  the  distance  from  the 
Sun  increases.  There  is  also  a  decrease  in  the  weight 
of  the  particles  (positive  force)  in  direct  proportion  to 
the  distance,  and  this  decrease  removes  an  influence  in- 
hibitory to  velocity  (excepting  momentum). 

On  its  outward  path  as  the  distance  of  the  comet  from 
the  Sun  is  increased  the  lineal  force  (repulsion)  and 
also  the  circular  force  are  weakened;  but  as  the  comet 
approaches  the  solar  equatorial  plane  the  lineal  force 
is  further  weakened  and  the  circular  force  (electric)  is 
increased  by  the  comet  being  brought  more  distinctly 


COMETS  133 

in  line  with  the  solar  currents.  Hence  the  comet  again 
crosses  the  equatorial  plane,  and  it  does  so  as  a 
negative  force  reversely  to  the  direction  of  the  planets. 
In  the  case  of  the  Halley  comet  this  occurs  some  dis- 
tance beyond  the  orbit  of  Neptune,  and  consequently  it 
must  approximate  the  region  of  the  atmosphere  of  the 
system.  That  the  comet  maintains  its  integrity  at  this 
distance  is  due  to  a  concentration  of  positive  matter  by 
the  Sun's  gravitational  force.  At  its  aphelion  when 
the  Halley  comet  crosses  the  plane  of  the  Sun's  equator 
(its  node)  it  is  well  within  the  region  of  positive  lines 
of  force  emanating  from  the  Sun,  and  these  lines 
exercising  a  lineal  attraction  the  comet  will  commence 
its  return  voyage. 

On  May  20th,  1910,  the  Halley  comet  passed  between 
the  Sun  and  the  Earth.  The  Earth  divided  the  tail 
because  surrounding  the  planet  is  a  concentrated  field  of 
positive  force  whose  lines  squeeze  out  the  negative 
matter  of  the  tail.  The  terrestrial  lines  of  force  must 
extend  beyond  the  Moon's  orbit,  otherwise  the  satellite 
would  revolve  round  the  Sun  as  a  planet.  The  lines 
will  extend  outward  until  meeting  the  solar  lines  in 
exact  strength  to  their  own,  when,  if  the  lines  of  the 
two  bodies  are  similar,  they  will  curve  toward  a  point 
of  neutralization,  if  dissimilar  they  will  mutually  neu- 
tralize. 

On  May  20th  the  Earth  is  to  the  south  of  the  Sun's 
equator,  and  hence  the  Halley  comet  must  also  have 
been  to  the  south  of  that  plane  when  passing  between 
the  solar  and  terrestrial  bodies.  The  comet  is  then 
receding  from  the  Sun  in  obedience  to  the  reaction  be- 
tween negative  forces.  The  Earth  at  certain  phases  of 
its  orbit  obeys  the  same  law. 


134  COMETS 

Comets  with  orbital  periods  of  less  than  100  years, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few,  revolve  directly,  that  is  in 
the  same  direction  as  the  planets.  The  Halley  comet  has 
a  retrograde  movement.  Comets  of  longer  periods  are 
about  divided  equally  as  to  the  direction  followed.  The 
explanation  of  these  facts  must  be  as  follows:  Nascent 
cometary  bodies  are  supremely  negative.  They  lose 
part  of  their  negative  matter  by  the  squeeze  of  the  solar 
field.  It  is  thus  evident  that  comets  tend  toward  a 
more  positive  constitution,  which  will  in  the  end  change 
their  direction. 

•An  important  feature  relative  to  the  response  of 
comets  to  extraneous  forces,  such  as  those  of  the  Sun, 
is  in  the  relative  position  of  positive  and  negative  con- 
stituents of  the  cometary  body.  Positive  matter  is 
always  favorably  situated  to  be  acted  upon  by  an  ex- 
traneous force.  The  relatively  positive  head  always 
approaches  the  Sun  thus  being  advantageously  placed 
to  be  acted  on  by  the  medium  through  which  the  forces 
of  the  Sun  radiate.  It  is  not  then  astonishing  to  find 
cometary  masses  revolving  in  the  direction  of  positive 
bodies.  They  become  partially  cationized  by  the  action 
of  the  field.  Free  magnets  (the  magnetized  state  is 
essentially  a  body  of  equal  positive  and  negative  forces) 
placed  in  an  induction  field  obey  the  law  of  positive 
rotation.  What  is  the  exact  degree  of  negative  pre- 
ponderance necessary  to  overcome  the  advantageous 
position  of  positive  constituents  of  a  body,  the  author  is 
unable  to  say.  A  comet  undoubtedly  loses  matter  on 
approaching  its  perihelion  and  gains  matter  on  ap- 
proaching its  aphelion.  If,  however,  its  orbit  is  hyper- 
bolic it  breaks  up  entirely  by  becoming  part  of  the 
common  atmosphere. 


COMETS  135 

The  capture  theory  of  comets  is  probably  true  to  the 
extent  that  individual  planets  partially  capture  the 
messengers  from  the  system's  atmosphere.  Their  orbits 
then  become  elliptical  and  they  revolve  within  the 
planetary  sphere.  The  comets  are  members  of  the 
solar  system  as  much  as  the  planets  themselves.  By 
modification  a  comet  might  even  become  a  satellite  of 
an  outer  planet,  but  as  a  whole  it  could  not  be  added  to 
a  planetary  body  excepting,  perhaps,  to  Uranus  or  Nep- 
tune. 

Why  does  a  comet  follow  an  orbit  which  is  so  dis- 
tinctly elliptical  while  a  planet  follows  an  orbit  which 
approaches  a  circle?  The  very  slight  momentum  pos- 
sessed by  a  cometary  mass,  owing  to  its  negative  con- 
stitution, allows  it  to  change  direction  immediately  on 
change  of  the  directing  motory  force.  The  comet 
whirls  round  the  Sun  in  obedience  to  the  stimulus  of 
electric  currents,  but  when  the  motory  force  is  changed 
to  the  repulsion  of  the  south  pole,  almost  without  hesi- 
tation it  follows  the  dictation  of  its  new  master.  The 
comet  acts  in  the  same  way  when  changing  from  the  di- 
recting agency  of  a  lineal  force  to  that  of  a  circulatory 
force.  Another  cause  of  a  comet  following  a  pronounced 
elliptical  circuit  is  the  absence  of  polarity.  The  solar- 
cometary  reactions  are  simply  attraction  between  posi- 
tives north  of  the  plane  of  the  Sun's  equator,  and  re- 
pulsion between  negatives  south  of  the  plane.  On  the 
other  hand,  on  March  20th,  just  as  it  is  well  under 
lineal  repulsion,  the  Earth  presents  its  positive  pole  to 
the  Sun  and  thus  the  repulsion  is  modified.  On  Sep- 
tember 22nd,  just  as  the  planet  is  well  under  solar 
attraction,  the  Earth  turns  its  negative  pole  towards  the 
Sun  and  thus. modifies  the  reaction.  The  terrestrial 
orbit  thus  approaches  the  circular  form. 


CHAPTER  X. 
The  Orbit  of  the  Earth. 

The  elementary  forces  which  cause  the  Earth  to  re- 
volve round  the  Sun  and  to  follow  an  orbit  of  an 
elliptical  form  and  at  the  same  time  to  assume  seasonal 
movements  are  complex.  The  problem  is  that  of  two 
electrified  polar  bodies,  the  one  relatively  minute  re- 
volving round  the  larger.  As  masses  the  two  bodies  are 
predominantly  positive.  We  will  regard  the  Earth  as 
being  in  equilibrium  at  its  mean  distance  from  the  Sun, 
and  the  variation  of  its  orbit  from  this  mean  by  par- 
ticular pushes  and  pulls  as  a  departure  from  equilib- 
rium. The  forces  may  be  divided  into  orbital  and 
seasonal.  The  orbital  forces  are: 

1.  Mass  attraction  or  gravitational  force,  which  is 
strictly  a  lineal  attraction  caused  by  the  reaction  be- 
tween two  positive  bodies. 

2.  Electrolytic  or  magnetic  attraction  and  repulsion, 
also  lineal.     The  following  formula  prevails:     The  re- 
action between  two  distant  positive  poles  is  attraction; 
the  reaction  between  two  negative  poles  is  repulsion; 
the   reaction  between  a  positive   and  negative  pole  is 
mutuali  neutralization,  with  an  elasticity  induced  in  the 
medium  by  the  polarized  strain. 

3.  The   induction  whirl   of   a   positive   body   round 
solar  electric  currents  of  constant  direction. 

4.  Eepulsion   between  solar  and  terrestrial   electric 
currents  of  opposite  direction. 

5.  Momentum. 

The  seasonal  forces  are: 


ORBIT  OF  EARTH  137 

1.  Repulsion   (resistance  to  attraction)  between  like 
poles   depending  upon   the   mutual   impenetrability   of 
like  polar  fields. 

2.  Attraction  between  unlike  polies  depending  upon 
the  elasticity  of  the  medium  caused  by  the  polarized 
strain  of  its  molecules,  initiated  by  the  presentation  of 
the  poles. 

3.  The  straightening  of  solar  and  terrestrial  electric 
currents   in   parallel   direction   according  to   Ampere's 
law. 

4.  Momenta. 

The  free  force  of  a  pole  is  qualitatively  the  same  as 
the  free  force  of  a  mass  and  the  direct  reaction  between 
positive  poles  is  simply  gravitationali.  In  all  cases,  how- 
ever, qualitatively  similar  induction  fields  possess  a 
mutual  impenetrability.  For  instance  a  molecule  has  a 
free  or  an  induction  field  which  is  maintained  by  its 
impenetrability  to  surrounding  like  fields.  Neverthe- 
less, the  molecule,  if  positive,  possesses  cohesiveness. 

The  Sun  attracts  a  comet  until  the  lines  of  force  be- 
come impenetrable  to  those  of  the  comet.  We  find 
that  when  the  Earth  is  north  of  the  plane  of  the  Sun's 
equator  that  the  terrestrial  north  is  relatively  repelled 
mainly  by  the  mutual  impenetrability  of  the  polar 
fields,  while  the  planet's  orbit  is  contracting  by  direct 
reactions.  It  is,  however,  more  correct  to  say  that  the 
impenetrability  of  the  fields  resists  attraction  of  the 
bodies  rather  than  that  an  active  repulsion  exists. 

The  neutralization  of  positive  and  negative  free  forces 
of  distant  bodies  is  effected  by  means  of  polarization  of 
the  medium.  The  molecules  of  the  medium  when  com- 
pletely depolarized  are  in  a  state  of  equilibrium,  when 
polarized  they  are  in  a  state  of  strain.  At  the  moment 


138  ORBIT  OF  EARTH 

of  its  initiation  this  strain  will  produce  a  slight  pull  on 
the  distant  bodies: 

(1)  Rupture  may  occur — molecules  of  the  medium 
are  dissociated  into  positive  and  negative  resultants,  the 
resultants  forming  new  combinations.    This  is  a  method 
of  propagation  of  electric  currents.    It  is  the  method  of 
chemical  action  which  is  essentially  accomplished  with- 
out a  medium. 

(2)  The  molecules  of  the  medium  being  subjected  to 
a   polarized  strain  acquire   an   elastic   property  which 
may  pull  the  distant  bodies  together.     In  this  case  no 
chemical  alteration  in  the  medium  occurs.     This  takes 
place  between  positive  and  negative  poles  of  magnets 
when  these  are  attracted.     It  may  occur  between  elec- 
trically charged  bodies  of  different  sign.     In  these  in- 
stances  no   spark   manifests   and   the   medium   is   not 
ruptured,  merely  displaced. 

Different  media  no  doubt  assume  different  degrees 
of  elastic  properties.  In  astronomical  events  we  have 
mainly  to  consider  the  medium  between  positive  and 
negative  bodies,  as  in  a  state  of  equilibrium,  and  the 
forces  kinetically  negative.  Positive  and  negative 
ponderable  forces  generally  do  not  produce  a  sufficient 
strain  in  the  medium  to  cause  attraction  of  bodies. 
Magnetic  attraction  is  an  exception  to  this  rule  and 
we  find  this  form  of  attraction  manifested  only  in 
seasonal  movements,  when  the  body  is  in  pivotal  equi- 
poise as  regards  other  forces.  In  the  main  when  at- 
traction between  a  positive  and  a  negative  force  is 
manifest  the  attraction  is  assisted  by  a  reaction  between 
forces  of  positive  character. 

A  good  deal  of  importance  has  been  attached  to  the 
effect  of  incident  light  on  bodies.  It  is  claimed  that 
radiant  energy  exercises  a  repulsion  on  a  body  on 


ORBIT  OF  EARTH  139 

which  it  is  incident.  Heat  or  light  are  energy  dependent 
on  unequilibrated  ether  which  has  the  property  of  im- 
penetrability. Hence,  when  set  free,  it  must  have  a 
push  on  particles.  That  heat  parts  ponderable  matter 
can  be  demonstrated  in  many  ways.  The  repulsive 
force,  however,  of  heat  and  light  on  such  a  body  as  the 
Earth  is  a  negligible  quantity.  Energy  follows  the 
course  of  least  resistance  and  when  striking  a  polar 
body  it  is  converted  into  electricity,  localized,  or  re- 
flected. These  are  the  courses  of  least  resistance.  To 
effect  a  push  on  the  Earth  against  the  other  forces 
would  be  the  course  of  greater  resistance.  Moreover, 
heat  and  light  energy  transformed  into  electricity  is  a 
more  important  kinetic  energy. 

The  following  electric  laws   formulated  by  Ampere 
have  an  important  bearing : 

(1)  "  Parallel  electric  currents  of  opposite  direction 
mutually  repel;  those  of  the  same  direction  mutually 
attract."     Fig.   13  indicates  the  manifestation  of  this 
law.    When  the  currents  are  of  the  same  direction  the 
induced  lines  of  force  tend  to  embrace  the  two  cur- 
rents; when  they  are  opposite  in  direction,  the  lines  of 
force  tend  to  pass  between  and  repel  them. 

(2)  A  series  of  laws  may  be  summed  up:    " Currents 
obliquely   directed  induce  stresses  in  the  surrounding 
media  tending  to  straighten  their  paths,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  in  parallel  direction." 

(3)  "The  force   exerted  between   two   parellel   por- 
tions of  circuits  is  proportional  to  the  product  of  the 
two  currents,  to  the  length  of  the  portions,   and  in- 
versely  proportional   to   the    simple    distance   between 
them."     This  law  of  Ampere  is  fundamental  to  Kep- 
ler's second  law:     "The  radius-vector  of  a  planet  de- 


140  ORBIT  OF  EARTH 

scribes  equal  areas  in  equal  times."  The  law  of  Kepler 
is  based  on  the  effect,  the  law  of  Ampere  on  the  cause. 
We  must  conclude,  from  the  immensity  of  the  Sun's 
mass  and  the  character  of  its  forces,  that  there  is  a 
central  nucleus  of  maximum  density,  positive  in  qual- 
ity, and  possessing  in  a  high  degree  the  property  of 
electric  conductivity.  This  center  is  under  the  influence 
of  electric  currents  and  may  not  be  hot.  The  photo- 
sphere is  under  the  influence  of  heat  produced  by 
neutralization  of  the  electric  currents.  The  central 
solar  body  is  the  primary  conductor  of  the  solar  system 
and  may  be  at  a  standstill,  or  may  even  have  a  move- 
ment in  a  direction  reverse  to  that  of  the  photosphere. 
The  photosphere  maintains  or  has  assumed  the  band 
form  of  the  nebulous  state.  As  previously  concluded 
all  matter  having  a  positive  reaction  with  the  electric 
currents  revolives  from  right  to  left  in  the  upper  semi- 
circle when  viewed  from  the  north  (Fig.  7).  In  this 
relative  position  the  solar  positive  current  is  approach- 
ing and  the  solar  negative  current  is  receding.  The 
interterrestrial  electric  currents  take  the  opposite 
direction. 

The  Orbit.  Let  us  take  up  the  matter  of  the  ter- 
restrial orbit  at  the  period  of  transformation  of  the 
Earth  from  the  cometary  to  the  planetary  condition 
(Fig.  14).  Let  us  picture  the  Earth  as  an  element  of 
a  spiral  nebula.  The  head  points  northward  and  ap- 
proaches the  Sun  and  the  tail  southward  and  recedes 
from  the  Sun.  During  this  period  crystallization  is 
taking  place  in  the  head,  and  the  positive  pole  of  the 
crystals  point  northward  and  incline  toward  the  Sun. 
This  process  gives  the  Earth  its  present  magnetic 
polarity.  As  soon  as  the  head  assumes  polarity  it  will 
seek  a  position  more  nearly  the  plane  of  the  Sun's 


ORBIT  OF  EARTH  141 

equator.  Concurrently,  the  solar  heat  and  light  are 
converted  into  electric  currents  passing  through  the 
terrestrial  body  (Fig.  7).  The  solar  currents  and  the 
terrestrial  currents  tend  to  straighten  their  paths  ac- 
cording to  the  Ampere  law.  This  willi  push  back  the 
north  pole  and  bring  the  south  pole  of  the  head  nearer 
the  Sun.  The  head  is  thus  in  equinoctial  position  and 
the  solar  and  terrestrial  equatorial  planes  are  straight. 
The  tail  then  is  driven  toward  the  equator  of  the  polar 
body — the  tail  emerges  from  the  equator  instead  of 
emerging  from  the  south  pole.  The  body  now  assumes 
axial  rotation.  Part  of  the  tail  is  driven  off  by  the 
concentrating  lines  of  force  of  the  Sun  and  part  of  it 
is  twisted  round  the  rotating  body  and  becomes  its 
atmosphere.  The  cometary  body  assumes  planethood. 

In  the  study  of  planetary  orbits  we  must  consider 
circularity  within  the  plane  of  the  Sun's  equator  as  the 
normal  form  of  an  orbit.  Accepting  this  circular  path 
as  the  normal  orbit  we  will  proceed  to  consider  the 
causes  which  produce  the  departure  from  normality. 
First  we  will  see  how  the  departure  is  initiated.  The 
terrestrial  body  placed  on  the  plane  of  the  Sun's 
equator  with  equinoctial  conditions  wilL  be  supported 
in  its  position  by  the  Ampere  law,  the  electric  currents  of 
the  two  bodies  tending  to  maintain  a  parallel  direction. 
The  seasonal  or  magnetic  forces  also  assist  in  maintain- 
ing the  normal  relative  position  of  Earth  to  the  Sun. 
There  is,  however,  a  differential  mass  attraction  of  the 
terrestrial  hemispheres.  The  northern  hemisphere  is 
heavier  than  the  southern,  for  the  reason  that  it  has  a 
larger  mass,  also  for  the  reason  that  its  pole  is  positive, 
and  also  because  it  is  positioned  north  of  the  equatorial 
plane  of  the  solar  body.  The  north  pole  will  thus  be 
tilted  toward  the  Sun,  Further,  between  the  terrestrial 


142  ORBIT  OF  EARTH 

and  solar  south  poles  repulsion  obtains.    An  orbit  oblique 
to  the  plane  of  the  equator  of  the  Sun  results. 

The  orbit  of  the  Earth  has  two  major  divisions,  each 
of  which  has  minor  divisions.  The  major  division  is 
effected  by  the  equatorial  plane  of  the  Sun.  This  is  the 
most  important  line  of  demarcation  within  the  solar- 
planetary  space.  As  a  space-mark  the  elliptic  has 
minimum  importance,  whereas  the  plane  of  the  Sun's 
equator  has  maximum  importance.  On  the  north  side 
of  the  plane  is  a  field  of  lines  of  force  emanating  from 
the  static  force  of  the  north  pole  of  the  Sun;  and  on 
the  south  side  is  a  field  of  lines  of  force  emanating 
from  the  static  force  of  the  south  pole  of  the  Sun. 
There  may  be,  however,  an  area  embracing  the  im- 
mediate neighborhood  of  the  plane  of  the  equator  of  the 
Sun  in  which  lines  of  force  from  the  mass  of  the  Sun 
radiate  predominately.  These  lines  are  positive  in 
character  and  hence  support  the  lines  radiating  from 
the  solar  north  pole.  The  extent  of  this  area,  however, 
is  a  matter  of  fact  which  the  author  is  not  prepared  to 
determine.  On  the  other  hand,  the  radiation  from  the 
poles  may  meet  at  the  plane  of  the  equator,  the  radia- 
tions from  the  body  of  the  Sun  being  confined  to  a  space 
proximate  to  the  solar  mass.  The  lines  of  force  from  a 
magnet  take  the  latter  course.  However,  the  solar  body 
is  an  electrolyte. 

The  forces  of  orbital  motion  are  divisible  into  cir- 
culatory and  lineal.  The  circulatory  motion  is  in- 
itiated and  maintained  by  the  inductive  energy  of  the 
electric  currents  of  the  Sun.  The  forward  movement, 
however,  is  reinforced  by  the  momentum.  We  will  con- 
sider the  lineal  forces  as  we  proceed. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  circulatory  forces  and 
momentum  on  June  3  the  Earth  crosses  the  plane  of  the 


ORBIT  OP  EARTH  143 

Sun's  equator.  Preceding  this  date  the  planet  was  un- 
der the  influence  of  repelling  forces  which  produced  a 
dilating  orbit.  The  momentum,  supported  by  repulsion 
of  electric  currents  of  opposite  direction,  causes  the 
dilation  to  continue  until  July  6  against  contracting  in- 
fluences. From  July  6  to  December  5  the  Earth  is  pass- 
ing through  a  concentrating  field  of  positive  force  radiat- 
ing from  the  Sun,  which  compels  a  contracting  orbit  by 
mass  attraction,  accentuated  by  the  electrolytic  force 
of  the  solar  north  pole — a  reaction  between  positive 
forces  of  the  two  bodies  (Fig.  14). 

From  July  6  to  September  22  the  Earth  presents  her 
north  pole  to  the  Sun,  whose  free  force  accentuates  mass 
attraction.  The  Earth  approaches  the  Sun  by  mass 
attraction,  although  it  does  so  against  the  resistance  of 
similar  fields  of  lines  of  force  emanating  from  the  solar 
and  terrestrial  north  poles — against  seasonal  or  indirect 
reactions. 

From  September  22  to  December  5  the  Earth  presents 
her  south  pole  to  the  Sun,  and  between  this  pole  and 
the  Sun's  forces  there  is  neutralization  and  a  certain 
pull  from  the  elasticity  of  the  medium.  In  addition  the 
positive  forces  of  the  Sun,  although  partly  neutralized, 
sweep  over  the  Earth  and  attract  the  terrestrial  body 
by  a  reaction  between  the  masses.  The  orbit  thus  con- 
tinues to  contract. 

From  December  5  to  June  3  the  Earth  is  south  of  the 
equatorial  plane.  Weakly  at  first  but  increasingly  the 
negative  lines  of  force  of  the  southern  field  envelop  the 
Earth,  neutralize  her  positive  forces,  kinetically  act  upon 
her  negative  forces,  and  push  her  orbit  outward.  This 
repulsive  force  probably  reaches  its  maximum  of  inten- 
sity at  the  equinox,  but  continues  with  less  intensity  until 
June  3. 


144  ORBIT  OF  EARTH 

From  December  5  to  March  20  the  Earth  presents  her 
south  or  negative  pole  to  the  Sun,  thus  being  advanta- 
geously placed  for  a  repelling  force  to  act  upon  her. 
From  March  20  to  June  3  the  Earth  presents  her  north 
or  positive  pole,  but  as  there  is  only  slight  kinetic  re- 
action between  positive  and  negative  forces,  the  solar 
negative  lines  of  force  sweep  over  the  Earth,  partially 
neutralize  her  positive  forces  and  kinetically  repel  the 
planet  through  a  reaction  between  negatives. 

Throughout  the  whole  orbit  there  is  repulsion  be- 
tween electric  currents  of  opposite  direction  according  to 
the  Ampere  law.  There  is  also  a  momentum  which  tends 
to  carry  the  Earth  in  a  straight  line  according  to  the  New- 
ton first  law  of  motion.  All  of  these  forces  are  lineal, 
consisting  of  a  push  or  a  pull.  The  momentum  impels 
the  body  in  a  straight  line.  The  great  circulatory  force 
is  the  induction  whirl  of  the  electric  currents  of  the 
Sun,  and  this  is  the  only  simple  circulatory  force.  The 
induction  whirl  is  cyclic,  in  double  form,  positive  and 
negative,  the  positive  matter  seeking  the  north  while 
whirling  from  right  to  left  in  the  upper  semi-cycle  as 
viewed  from  the  north,  and  the  negative  matter  seeking 
the  south  while  whirling  in  the  opposite  direction. 

From  December  5  to  January  4  is  a  period  of  thirty 
days;  from  June  3  to  July  6  is  a  period  of  thirty-three 
days.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  difference  of  three 
days  in  the  length  of  the  periods  is  fully  explained  by 
the  relation  of  the  momenta  to  the  acting  forces  pre- 
vious to  the  periods.  In  both  instances  the  momenta 
tend  to  dilate  the  orbit,  thus  acting  with  the  forces 
previous  to  the  latter  period  and  against  the  forces 
previous  to  the  first  period.  The  attractive  or  repulsive 
force  of  Sun  should  be  greater  on  the  terrestrial  body 


ORBIT  OP  EARTH  145 

the  further  the  Earth  is  north  or  south  of  the  solar 
equatorial  plane. 

Giving  due  allowance  to  momentum  it  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  polar  forces  of  the  Sun  predominate  in 
the  modifications  of  the  orbit  from  a  normal  circularity. 
When  the  Earth  is  north  of  the  equatorial  plane  of  the 
Sun  the  terrestrial  orbit  contracts;  when  south  of  the 
plane  the  terrestrial  orbit  dilates.  It  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  the  modifications  from  normal  circularity 
are  produced  by  an  attraction  or  a  repulsion  which  is 
simply  lineal. 

The  Seasons.  The  planetary  seasons  are  produced  by 
differential  reactions  between  solar  and  planetary  fields 
of  force.  In  the  modification  of  the  orbit  the  attracting 
or  repelling  force  traverses  the  medium  from  primary 
to  primary,  but  a  seasonal  movement  is  a  play  between 
fields,  or  a  manifestation  of  stored  energy  in  the  media. 
The  reactions  are  magnetic  in  character.  The  mutual 
impenetrability,  distortion  under  pressure,  and  elasticity 
of  fields  between  like  poles ;  and  the  elasticity  associated 
with  the  polarized  strain  of  fields  between  unlike  poles, 
are  factors  of  the  differentiation  (Figs.  5  and  14). 

The  seasonal  movements  of  the  Earth  are  in  the  main 
a  differential  rate  of  approachment  or  a  differential 
rate  of  recession  of  the  terrestrial  poles  relative  to  the 
Sun.  During  the  period  when  the  Earth  is  north  of 
the  plane  of  the  Sun's  equator,  except  from  June  3  to 
July  6,  the  terrestrial  south  approaches  the  Sun  at  a 
greater  rate  than  the  terrestrial  north  pole ;  and  during 
the  period  when  the  Earth  is  south  of  the  plane  of  the 
Sun's  equator  the  terrestrial  south  recedes  from  the  Sun 
at  a  greater  rate  than  the  terrestrial  north  pole,  except 
from  December  5  to  January  4.  In  the  first  period, 
although  the  terrestrial  north  is  relatively  receding,  it 


146  ORBIT  OF  EARTH 

is  actually  approaching  the  Sun;  and  in  the  second 
period,  although  the  north  pole  is  relatively  approach- 
ing, it  is  actually  receding  from  the  Sun.  The  north 
pole  acts  as  a  moveable  pivot  on  which  the  south 
swings,  as  the  tail  of  a  comet  swings  relative  to  the 
Sun  on  the  pivotal  head.  We  will  show  hereafter  when 
these  rules  do  not  apply. 

"We  will  divide  the  orbit  into  four  main  sections  for 
the  consideration  of  the  seasonal  movements. 

From  January  4  to  March  20  the  terrestrial  south  is 
relatively  repelled  by  the  south  of  the  Sun,  supported 
by  a  straightening  of  the  paths  of  solar  and  terrestrial 
electric  currents.  The  elasticity  of  the  medium  be- 
tween the  terrestrial  north  and  solar  south  produces  a 
slight  pull  between  these  poles.  At  the  same  time  the 
distance  between  the  Sun  and  the  Earth  is  increased,  and 
the  terrestrial  north  actually  recedes.  During  this 
period  the  movements  of  the  terrestrial  poles  are  a 
differential  recession  from  the  Sun,  produced  by  the 
acquired  properties  of  the  medium — impenetrability  and 
elasticity  of  like  fields  assisting  recession  and  the  elastic 
pull  of  unlike  fields  retarding  recession.  At  the  same 
time  the  direct  action  of  the  solar  south  is  greater  on  the 
terrestrial  south  than  on  the  terrestrial  north. 

From  March  20  to  June  3  the  terrestrial  south  is 
still  relatively  repelled  by  the  south  of  the  Sun,  and  the 
elasticity  of  the  medium  produces  a  slight  pull  between 
the  terrestrial  north  and  solar  south,  but  these  forces 
are  opposed  by  the  electric  currents  of  the  two  bodies 
being  diverted  from  parallel  paths.  From  June  3  to 
June  21  the  polar  forces  are  weak  and  the  momentum 
carries  the  previous  seasonal  movements  onward  until 
the  latter  date.  The  distance  of  the  Earth  from  the 
Sun  continues  to  be  increased  during  these  periods,  and 


ORBIT  OF  EARTH  147 

the  terrestrial  north  actually  recedes  from,  although 
relatively  approaching  the  Sun.  The  difference  be- 
tween the  period  previous  to  March  20  and  that  follow- 
ing is  that  in  the  former  the  terrestrial  south  is  ad- 
vantageously placed  to  be  acted  on  by  the  south  of  the 
Sun,  and  that  in  the  latter  the  terrestrial  north  has  the 
advantage  of  relative  placement.  March  20  marks  a 
critical  point  in  the  orbit. 

From  July  6  to  September  22  the  fields  of  force  be- 
tween the  solar  north  and  terrestrial  north,  being  simi- 
lar and  impenetrable,  resist  the  approachment  of  these 
poles  by  mass  attraction.  Mass  attraction,  however, 
overcomes  the  resistance  but  the  terrestrial  north  is  in- 
hibited by  the  impenetrability  of  similar  fields  relative 
to  the  movement  of  the  terrestrial  south  in  the  same 
direction.  The  medium  between  the  solar  north  and 
terrestrial  south  exercises  an  elastic  pull  on  these  poles, 
which  assists  mass  attraction.  The  relative  movement  of 
the  terrestrial  poles  is  assisted  by  solar  and  terrestrial 
currents  tending  to  straighten  their  paths  in  parallel 
direction. 

From  September  22  to  December  5  the  same  forces 
prevail  as  in  the  previous  period,  only  the  electric  cur- 
rents of  the  two  bodies  resist  the  divergence  of  their 
paths  from  parallel  direction.  From  July  6  to  Decem- 
ber 5  both  poles  approach  the  Sun,  the  south  relatively 
faster. 

From  December  5  to  December  21  the  polar  forces 
being  weak  the  momentum  carries  the  previous  move- 
ment onward.  The  length  of  this  period  is  sixteen  days, 
whereas  the  corresponding  period  from  June  3  to  June  21 
is  eighteen  days.  The  explanation  is  found  in  the 
differential  weight  of  the  terrestrial  hemisphere,  and 
hence  differential  momenta,  the  northern  being  the 


148  ORBIT  OF  EARTH 

heavier.  From  June  3  to  June  21  the  heavier  pole  is 
turning  towards  the  Sun,  hence  the  momentum  is  rela- 
tively greater.  From  December  5  to  December  21  the 
heavier  pole  is  relatively  receding  from  the  Sun,  and 
hence  the  seasonal  movement  is  retarded. 

There  are  two  periods,  that  between  the  June  solstice 
and  aphelion  and  that  between  the  December  solstice 
and  perihelion,  in  which  the  general  rule  does  not  hold. 
In  these  periods  polar  action  is  weak,  and  the  solar  and 
terrestrial  currents  strain  to  straighten  their  paths  in 
parallel  direction  thus  producing  seasonal  movements. 
It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  seasonal  movements  of  the 
terrestrial  poLes  are  simply  different  rates  of  accession 
to  the  Sun  as  the  Earth's  orbit  contracts,  and  different 
rates  of  recession  from  the  Sun  as  the  the  Earth's  orbit 
dilates.  In  each  case  the  terrestrial  head  (north)  is  the 
slow-moving  pole.  The  orbit  of  the  Earth  should  be 
considered  as  the  path  of  its  north  pole  or  head  not 
the  path  of  the  center  of  the  terrestrial  body,  just  as  a 
cometary  orbit  is  taken  from  the  path  of  its  head. 
A  remarkable  analogy  exists  between  the  kinetic  char- 
acter of  the  north  (positive)  pole  as  compared  with  the 
south  (negative)  to  the  kinetic  qualities  of  the  positive 
and  negative  electric  matter. 

The  following  is  worthy  of  the  strictest  attention.  The 
changes  in  the  presentation  of  the  terrestrial  poles  on 
March  20  and  September  22  are  the  causes  of  differ- 
entiation of  a  planetary  orbit  from  that  of  a  comet — 
the  round  form  from  the  elliptical. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
The  Moon. 

Our  satellite  revolves  at  a  mean  distance  of  about 
240,000  miles,  or  about  sixty  times  the  equatorial  radius 
of  the  Earth,  and  about  one  four-hundredth  of  the  dis- 
tance of  the  Earth  from  the  Sun.  Its  volume  is  one 
forty-ninth  that  of  the  Earth.  Its  mass  is  said  to  be 
one-eightieth  that  of  the  Earth,  and  its  density  six- 
tenths  the  Earth's  density.  In  comparison  with  its 
primary  planet  no  other  satellite  is  nearly  so  large. 
From  the  viewpoint  of  the  Earth  the  Moon  has  no  axial 
rotation.  From  the  viewpoint  of  the  Sun  the  Moon 
rotates  once  in  a  lunar  month.  Its  orbit  (path  round 
the  Earth)  is  an  ellipse  with  an  eccentricity  three  times 
as  great  as  that  of  the  Earth.  The  velocity  of  the 
Moon  round  the  Earth  is  about  six-tenths  of  a  mile  per 
second,  or  about  one-thirtieth  the  orbital  velocity  of  the 
Earth.  The  Moon's  poles  alternately  tip  towards  the 
Earth,  just  as  the  Earth's  poles  tip  towards  the  Sun. 
No  water  and  no  atmosphere  have  been  observed  on  the 
Moon.  The  albedo  is  0.174.  Mountains  in  the  Moon 
have  been  estimated  to  be  as  high  as  30,000  feet. 

How  did  the  Moon  become  a  satellite?  First  we  may 
dismiss  the  comet-capture  theory  by  stating  that  no 
cometary  body  could  have  the  construction  of  the  Moon. 
If  we  go  back  to  the  nebulous  phase  of  the  system  we 
must  suppose  that  the  Earth  was  condensed  from  a 
gaseous  band  having  a  breadth  of  about  seventy-four 
million  of  miles.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  pri- 
marily there  were  numerous  centers  of  condensation, 
and  that  the  resulting  bodies  were  gathered  into  one. 


150  THE  MOON 

Suppose,  however,  that  there  was  one  exception,  that  at 
the  outermost  part  of  the  band  there  was  condensed  a 
body  of  less  density  and  of  smaller  size  than  the  main 
one.  Every  time  the  smaller  body  was  in  conjunction 
with  the  larger  body  the  orbit  of  the  former  would 
contract.  If  the  two  bodies  were  of  the  same  density 
they  would  unite  as  one  body,  but  the  smaller  being 
less  dense  it  would  find  an  equilibrium  in  the  radiating 
lines  of  force  of  the  larger  body,  at  some  distance,  and 
thus  become  a  satellite.  Both  bodies  being  positive  their 
orbital  direction  would  be  the  same,  the  smaller  body 
just  before  losing  its  independent  orbit  would  revolve 
slightly  outside  of  the  larger.  The  Moon  would  thus 
become  entangled  with  the  terrestrial  lines  of  force, 
but  would  maintain  her  orbit  round  the  Sun  in  obedi- 
ence to  the  solar  electric  currents.  The  volume,  mass 
and  density  of  the  Moon  as  related  to  those  of  the 
Earth  allow  the  former  to  equilibrate  amidst  the  ter- 
restrial lines  of  force  exactly  in  its  present  relative 
position.  The  minutest  constitutional  variation  would 
be  followed  by  a  modification  of  its  position,  and  a 
change  of  position  would  modify  its  constitution.  Mark 
the  analogous  behaviour  of  a  comet  amidst  the  lines  of 
force  of  the  Sun,  as  it  rounds  the  solar  body  at  peri- 
helion. 

The  Moon  follows  a  continuous  forward  path  round 
the  Sun,  its  velocity  round  the  Earth  being  only  one- 
thirtieth  its  mean  velocity  round  the  Sun  (Fig.  24). 
The  Moon's  orbit  round  the  Sun  has  the  form  of  a  wave 
with  its  crest  at  full  moon  and  its  trough  at  dark  moon, 
the  wave  having  a  period  of  a  lunar  month.  The  orbit 
of  the  Earth  is  the  line  of  undulatory  equilibrium.  The 
true  orbit  of  the  Moon  is  round  the  Sun.  When  nearer 
the  Sun  than  the  Earth  the  Moon  decreases  its  orbital 


THE  MOON  151 

velocity,  and  when  more  distant  from  the  Sun  than 
the  Earth  the  Moon  increases  its  orbital  velocity.  This 
corresponds  to  the  velocity  changes  of  a  particle  on  the 
surface  of  a  planet. 

The  forces  engaged  are  those  between  the  Moon  and 
the  Earth,  and  those  between  the  Moon  and  the  Sun. 
Those  between  the  Earth  and  Moon  are:  (1)  gravi- 
tation between  two  positive  bodies;  (2)  repulsion  be- 
tween the  bodies  by  impenetrability  of  like  fields;  (3) 
attraction  between  electric  currents  of  Like  direction. 
The  effects  are  modified  by  the  bodies  being  polar. 
Thus  when  the  Moon  is  north  of  the  equator  of  the 
Earth  it  is  enveloped  in  a  terrestrial  positive  force  and 
its  distance  from  its  primary  should  be  decreased ; 
when  south  of  the  equator  the  distance  should  be  in- 
creased. The  author  has  not  sufficient  data  to  entirely 
verify  these  conclusions.  The  Sun's  influence  no  doubt 
is  a  very  great  modifying  factor.  The  problems  of  the 
Earth's  orbit  mainly  consist  of  the  actions  of  two 
bodies,  here  there  are  three.  When  the  lunar  body  is 
the  more  distant  from  the  Sun  the  terrestrial  lines  of 
force  increase  its  orbital  velocity,  when  it  is  nearer  the 
terrestrial  lines  decrease  its  velocity.  In  the  case  of  the 
former  the  relative  position  of  the  Moon  is  that  of  a 
ball  thrown  on  a  floor  moving  in  the  same  direction  as 
itself,  in  the  latter  it  is  that  of  a  ball  thrown  on  a 
floor  moving  in  the  opposite  direction  to  itself.  The 
Moon,  however,  has  always  a  forward  movement  in  her 
orbit  round  the  Sun. 

The  forces  between  the  Moon  and  the  Sun  are  (1) 
the  lines  of  force  from  the  static  forces  of  the  Sun 
which  inhibit  the  Moon's  velocity  in  its  course  round 
the  solar  body  when  the  lunar  body  is  nearer  than 
the  Earth.  These  lines  of  force  also  inhibit  the  or- 


152  THE  MOON 

bital  motion  of  the  proximate  surface  of  the  Earth  thus 
causing  axial  rotation.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  action 
of  the  static  forces  of  the  Sun  on  the  Moon  when 
the  nearer  body  is  fundamentally  the  same  as  on  the 
proximate  surface  of  the  Earth.  (2)  The  induction 
whirl  of  the  electric  currents  of  the  Sun  cause  the 
Earth  and  Moon  as  positive  bodies  to  follow  a  com- 
mon orbital  direction. 

Of  all  bodies  in  the  solar  system,  excepting  the 
Earth,  the  Moon  is  the  most  favorably  situated  for  sus- 
taining vegetable  and  animal  life.  (1)  It  occupies  the 
same  relative  and  favorable  position  in  the  system  as 
the  Earth.  (2)  From  the  standpoint  of  the  Sun  it 
has  an  axial  rotation  of  28  days.  (3)  It  occupies  the 
relative  position  to  the  Sun's  forces  which  permits  of 
the  water  equilibrium.  (4)  The  same  position  allows 
it  to  have  a  common  boundary  Idne  between  solid  and 
gaseous  matter,  between  positive  and  negative  matter, 
and  at  which  solar  energy  is  stayed.  (5)  It  has  moun- 
tains which  modify  its  climate  and  produce  a  wide  dis- 
tribution of  the  water  cycle. 

It  may  be  accepted  as  true  that  the  proximate  sur- 
face of  the  Moon  has  neither  atmosphere  nor  water. 
But  these  would  be  relatively  repelled  by  the  lines  of 
force  emanating  from  the  Earth,  as  mark  the  tail  (at- 
mosphere) of  a  comet  in  relation  to  the  Sun,  and  also 
mark  how  water  behaves  on  Mars.  Also  mark  this 
fact  that  no  solid  body  (except  it  be  Mercury)  is 
without  an  atmosphere.  The  Moon  must  have  both 
atmosphere  and  water.  As  compared  with  the  Earth 
the  Moon  has  the  only  disadvantage  of  a  longer  day. 
As  compared  with  Venus  it  has  an  alternate  day  and 


THE  MOON  153 

night  which,  according  to  preponderating  evidence, 
Venus  has  not.  The  Moon,  according  to  our  deductions, 
has  also  a  hemisphere  on  which  there  is  sunshine,  wa- 
ter, oxygen,  and  mountains,  a  combination  which  Venus 
probably  has  not.  As  compared  to  Mars  the  Moon 
has  reached  an  evolutionary  period  further  advanced 
—has  mountains  and  related  water  cycles,  while  the  sur- 
face of  Mars  is  entirely  level.  Although  water  is  un- 
doubtedly absent  from  the  proximate  surface  at  the 
present  time,  yet  there  is  evidence  of  there  having  been 
water  in  the  past.  On  Mars  and  on  the  Earth  the 
water  equilibrium  evidently  preceded  mountain  build- 
ing. Evidence  of  the  action  of  water  is  not  wanting 
and  if  water  then  there  must  have  been  air,  of  which 
oxygen  was  a  constituent.  Evidence  of  the  action  of 
water  on  the  proximate  surface  of  the  Moon  is  proof  of 
a  previously  independent  orbit.  No  satellite  can  pre- 
serve its  water  and  air  conditions  on  the  surface  con- 
stantly facing  its  primary,  any  more  than  a  tail  of  a 
comet  could  surround  the  cometary  head.  The  water 
as  cloud  together  with  the  atmosphere  would  be  driven 
to  the  distal  side.  Evidence  of  the  former  presence 
of  water  would  tend  to  show  that  the  Moon  very  late 
in  her  history  became  a  satellite,  in  fact  at  a  later 
period  than  Mars  is  at  present.  Perhaps  the  Moon 
was  an  asteroid  when  the  asteroidal  space  was  be- 
tween the  Earth  and  Mars.  A  satellite  Moon  points 
to  a  catastrophe  to  proximate  moonites. 

The  organic  cell  is  produced  within  a  limited  range 
of  ponderable  pressure  (the  combined  inductive  action 
of  the  static  forces  of  the  Sun  and  planet)  and  radia- 
tion pressure  (the  intensity  multiplied  by  the  resis- 


154  THE  MOON 

tance  to  radiation).  According  to  our  deductions  the 
conditions  are  absolutely  obtainable  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Moon.  The  intensity  of  radiation  is  as  great  at 
the  top  of  mountains  as  at  the  sea  Level,  but  the  resis- 
tance to  radiation  is  much  less  at  the  mountain  top  and 
the  energy  is  thus  reflected  whereas  it  is  localized  at  the 
sea  level.  In  the  valleys  of  the  Moon  solar  energies 
may  be  intensely  localized  thus  bringing  the  conditions 
within  the  range  essential  to  cell  production.  Too 
much  importance  is  not  to  be  attached  to  the  size  of  the 
planetary  body  in  this  respect,  as  the  chief  factors  in 
producing  an  equilibrium  of  forces  essential  to  cell  life 
reside  in  the  degree  of  solar  activity.  This  is  too 
great  in  Mercury  and  too  little  in  Jupiter.  The  con- 
centrating lines  of  force  from  the  Sun  are  essential  to 
bringing  oxygen  and  hydrogen  together  as  water,  and 
solar  radiations  of  specific  intensity  volatilize  and  may 
even  dissociate  it.  Great  intensity  of  solar  lines  of 
force  repel  it.  Water  equilibrates  amidst  the  solar  lines 
of  force  from  the  position  of  Venus  to  that  of  Mars. 
The  water  area  of  our  star-space  is  also  the  area  of  cell 
life,  and  the  Moon  is  in  the  center  of  this  area.  The 
intrinsic  forces  of  Mercury  have  not  been  sufficient  to 
maintain  a  water  equilibrium,  and  the  forces  of  Jupiter 
have  not  been  able  to  produce  it.  Life  conditions  are 
plastic  and  the  organic  cell  is  very  much  differentiated 
as  shown  by  its  variety  on  the  Earth.  The  Moonite  may 
excel  in  symmetrical  form  and  beauty  and  in  high  intel- 
ligence when  compared  with  his  special  type  of  the 
Earth.  The  common  boundary  line,  water  and  hence 
the  organic  cell  undoubtedly  exist  on  the  distal  sur- 
face of  the  Moon. 


VELOCITIES  OF  SATELLITES 
RELATION  OF  VELOCITIES  OF  SATELLITES. 


155 


Lowell  publishes  the  following  tabulation  of  the  or- 
bital velocities  of  satellites  of  different  systems,  and 
points  out  the  striking  parallelism  between  the  systems: 


Mean  Speed,  Miles  a  Second 

Of  Primary  in 
Orbit 

Of  Satellite  about 
Primary 

Jupiter 
Sat. 

Saturn 

Uranus 
Neptune 

1 

8.1 

6.0 

, 

4.2 
3.4 

10.7 

8.5 
6.7 
5.1 

9.0 
7.9 
8.2 
6.3 
5.3 
3.5 
2.0 

3.5 
2.9 
2.3 

2.0 

2.7 

2 

3 

4 

1  
2 

3 

4  
5  

6  

8  

1 

2 

3 

4  

1 

The  revolution  of  the  planets  in  their  orbits  is  in  re- 
sponse to  the  electric  currents  of  the  Sun.  The  speed 
will  be  inverse  as  the  distance  and  direct  as  the 
quantity  of  the  responsive  force  of  the  body.  As  the 
planets  take  the  direction  of  positive  bodies,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  more  relatively  positive  the  planet  is  in 
its  construction  the  greater  the  speed.  Hence  each 
succeeding  planet  from  within  outward  will  have  a 


156  VELOCITIES  OF  SATELLITES 

double  cause  of  decrease  of  orbital  velocity — the  in- 
crease of  distance  and  the  decrease  of  positive  quality. 
There  is  also  a  decrease  of  momentum  which  depends 
entirely  on  positive  matter  in  motion.  As  regards 
the  satellites  of  any  particular  planet  we  can  eliminate 
distance  from  the  Sun  as  a  cause  of  variation  of  speed, 
for  the  mean  distance  of  a  satellite  from  the  Sun  may 
be  taken  as  the  distance  of  its  primary. 

We  have  concluded  that  each  planetary  body  is  in  a 
state  of  equilibrium  in  the  position  it  occupies  amidst 
the  lines  of  force  emanating  from  the  Sun.  Further, 
each  satellite  body  is  in  a  position  of  equilibrium  amidst 
the  lines  of  force  emanating  from  its  primary.  As  a 
corollary  each  satellite  of  a  series  having  a  common 
center  must  be  less  positive  and  more  negative  than  the 
preceding  inward  satellite.  The  relative  amount  of 
positive  matter  in  any  satellite  will  be  inversely  pro- 
portional to  its  distance  from  its  primary,  and  the 
relative  amount  of  negative  matter  will  be  directly  pro- 
portional to  the  distance  from  the  primary.  Hence 
satellites  which  respond  to  electric  currents  as  positive 
matter  will  decrease  in  velocity  as  the  distance  in- 
creases from  the  primary.  In  the  case  of  the  satellites 
of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  the  decrease  of  positive  quality 
is  an  important  factor  in  causing  the  decrease  of  ve- 
locity as  the  mean  orbital  distance  increases. 

Variations  in  the  momentum  owing  to  a  change  in 
the  relative  amounts  of  positive  and  negative  constit- 
uents of  the  satellite  is  an  important  factor  of  modifi- 
cation of  velocity.  This  will  be  more  particularly 
shown  in  the  case  of  Uranus. 

Uranus  presents  a  separate  problem.  The  orbital 
movements  of  the  satellites  are  retrograde,  and  this 
feature  must  be  in  obedience  to  the  predominance  of 


VELOCITIES  OF  SATELLITES  157 

negative  forces.  Hence  as  the  satellites  increase  in  their 
negative  quality  in  direct  proportion  to  the  distance 
from  the  planet,  they  ought  to  respond  to  the  currents 
of  the  Sun  with  a  velocity  increasing  as  the  distance 
from  their  primary  increases.  But  here  is  forced  upon 
our  consideration  another  factor  of  modification  of 
velocity.  Momentum  is  a  property  of  ponderable  force, 
which  elementarily  is  attraction  between  positive  bodies. 
Negative  force  is  not  ponderable,  in  fact  it  has  the 
opposite  quality  repulsion.  Hence  the  satellites  of 
Uranus,  and  other  negative  bodies,  as  comets,  have  very 
little  momentum,  that  little  varying  according  to  the 
relative  amount  of  positive  matter  in  their  consti- 
tution. The  satellites  of  Uranus  have  a  velocity  in- 
versely proportional  to  their  mean  orbital  distance,  be- 
cause they  acquire  momentum  (their  impelling  forces 
being  equal)  directly  proportional  to  the  amount  of 
their  positive  constituents,  which  in  general,  decreases 
as  their  mean  orbital  distance  increases. 

Momentum  as  a  factor  of  modification  of  velocity 
must  be  considered  as  having  bearing  on  all  orbital  and 
axial  movements.  The  conception  that  purely  negative 
matter  is  incapable  of  acquiring  a  momentum  that  would 
overcome  the  slightest  resistance  is  of  capital  importance 
in  the  solution  of  astronomical  problems.  The  immense 
momentum  acquired  by  such  a  positive  body  as  the 
planet  Mercury,  and  the  almost  negation  of  the  prop- 
erty of  acquiring  momenta  by  cometary  masses,  with 
the  differentiation  of  such  a  property  as  regards 
planets,  as  regards  satellites,  and  as  regards  comets, 
must  materially  differentiate  the  motion  of  these  bodies. 
That  exactly  one  undivided  half  of  the  matter  of  the 
solar  system  is  incapable  of  accumulating  a  momentum 
sufficient  to  carry  it  one  inch  against  a  minimum  re- 


158  VELOCITIES  OF  SATELLITES 

sistance  after  the  impelling  force  is  removed  may  be 
increditable  to  some  minds.  Momentum  differentiated 
by  the  quality  of  the  element  is  an  important  factor  in 
modifying  the  velocity  of  all  celestial  bodies. 

A  question,  of  only  theoretical  value,  presents.  Would 
a  purely  negative  body  in  motion  in  an  absolute 
vacuum  and  without  external  resistance  (no  such  body 
or  state  exists)  become  absolutely  immobile  on  removal 
of  the  impelling  force?  According  to  the  Newtonian 
law  such  a  body  would  move  forever.  A  question  of 
practical  importance  is  formulated  thus:  Would  a 
body  of  purely  negative  matter  in  motion  be  capable 
of  imparting  motion  to  another  body  before  or  after 
the  impelling  force  is  removed?  If  we  eliminate  the 
property  of  cohesiveness  acquired,  by  lines  of  force  as  a 
causal  factor,  we  can  answer  this  question  negatively. 
The  real  quantity  of  matter  in  a  cometary  body  (posi- 
tive and  negative  matter)  must  be  immense,  yet  the 
disturbing  influence  on  other  bodies  is  hardly  percept- 
ible. If  a  comet  struck  a  planet,  which  it  could  not 
owing  to  the  radiating  lines  of  force  of  the  planetary 
body,  the  blow  would  be  insignificant.  If  a  comet's 
nucleus  became  predominantly  positive  and  be  drawn 
into  a  planetary  system,  as  in  the  case  of  meteorites,  it 
would  strike  the  planetary  body,  but  the  cometary  tail 
would  be  left  behind  by  the  squeeze  of  the  lines  of  force 
of  the  planet. 

Relative  to  the  orbital  speed  of  a  body  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  it  is  crossing  gravitational  lines  of 
force  which  must  have  a  differential  retarding  in- 
fluence. Hence  the  problem  is  complex,  and  thus 
differing  from  the  experiment  of  a  light  and  a  heavy 
body  falling  in  a  vacuum  at  apparently  the  same  speed. 


VELOCITIES  OP  SATELLITES  159 

When  we  compare  the  motion  of  the  satellites  of  other 
planets  with  that  of  the  lunar  body,  we  find  a  difference 
in  their  relative  velocities.  The  Moon's  motion  round 
the  Earth  is  an  increased  velocity  at  full  Moon  and  a 
decreased  velocity  at  dark  Moon.  The  Moon  always 
moves  forward  in  her  orbit  round  the  Sun,  while  in 
this  respect  some  of  the  satellites  appear  to  have  a  real 
backward  movement.  Taking  the  Moon's  orbit  as  the 
basis  of  comparison,  we  find  a  satellite  whose  orbit  is 
retrograde  simply  increasing  its  velocity  when  relatively 
proximate  to  the  Sun,  and  decreasing  its  velocity  when 
relatively  distant  from  the  Sun  in  its  orbit  round  the 
solar  body.  This  is  exactly  opposite  to  the  motary 
variations  of  the  Moon.  A  body  sufficiently  negative  in 
its  construction  to  follow  an  anion  or  retrograde 
direction  in  answer  to  the  electric  currents  of  the  Sun 
will  act  oppositely  in  other  ways  to  the  actions  of  a  posi- 
tive body. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
Spiral  Nebulae. 

Accepting  a  mass  of  gaseous  matter  in  circular  mo- 
tion as  a  state  intermediate  to  a  past  and  a  future  pe- 
riod of  planetary  evolvement  it  is  pertinent  to  con- 
template the  manner  in  which  the  spiral  form  occurs 
in  nebulae.  We  must  conceive  that  the  gaseous  mass 
has  north  and  south  poles,  that  is,  it  has  an  electrolytic 
arrangement,  the  north  pole  having  a  free  force  of 
cation  quality  and  the  south  pole  of  anion  quality. 
The  succeeding  phase  in  the  cycle  will  be  separation  of 
the  nebulous  mass  into  bands  having  interspaces  of 
ether.  This  will  occur  from  cation  concentrativeness. 
Then  we  must  consider  the  progressive  phases  as  follow : 
(1)  The  matter  of  the  north  pole  of  the  band  will  con- 
dense and  that  of  the  south  will  diffuse.  (2)  The  north 
poles  of  the  different  bands  will  be  drawn  towards  each 
other  by  positive  concentrativeness  (gravitational  force) 
and  the  south  poles  of  the  bands  will  mutually  repel, 
just  as  two  cathodes  mutually  repel  (Fig.  26).  (3) 
As  the  whole  mass  is  in  circular  motion  the  north  end, 
being  nearer  the  central  or  solar  band,  will  gain  in  its 
orbit  and  the  south  pole  will  follow  as  the  tail  of  a 
comet  follows  the  head.  Thus  the  spiral  is  formed. 
The  second  phase  is  portrayed  in  Fig.  27. 

It  will  be  seen  that  each  band  is  a  modified  comet, 
that  the  north  is  the  cometary  head  and  the  south 
is  the  tail.  As  evolutionary  processes  progress  the 
north  becomes  the  planetary  body  and  the  south  its 
atmosphere.  As  condensation  progresses  part  of  the 


SPIRAL  NEBULAE  161 

tail  is  driven  off  and  forms  a  common  atmosphere  to 
the  system,  and  the  remainder  gets  wrapped  round 
the  head  by  rotatory  motion  of  the  embryo  planet. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  Earth  is  a  globe 
flattened  at  the  poles.  Our  deductions  are  that  from 
being  an  electrolyte  the  Earth  is  oval,  with  the  large 
end  of  the  ovoid  pointing  north.  The  atmosphere  was 
exactly  opposite  in  form,  the  south  end  being  higher 
than  that  of  the  north.  The  atmosphere  being  nega- 
tive seeks  the  pole  furthest  from  the  Sun,  which  by 
seasonal  changes  is  the  winter  pole.  The  facts  as 
far  as  we  can  ascertain  them  support  our  deductions. 
If  we  could  cut  the  Earth  in  two  by  dividing  it  at  the 
equator  we  would  certainly  find  the  northern  hemis- 
phere weighing  more  than  the  southern.  It  undoubtedly 
measures  more  in  circumference  if  we  take  an  average 
of  Land  elevation.  But  we  believe  that  even  at  sea  level 
there  may  be  some  difference  between  the  actual  cir- 
cumference of  the  north  and  the  south  at  similar  north 
and  south  latitudes.  These  are  deductions  from  the 
electrolytic  idea.  There  is,  however,  a  counteracting 
force  in  the  rotatory  movement  of  the  oval  mass.  Be 
this  as  it  may,  the  fact  of  there  being  more  land  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  than  in  the  southern  supports 
our  concept  of  the  Earth  being  an  electrolyte  and  an 
oval  body. 


MULTIPLE  STARS. 

The  solar  system  may  be  accepted  as  a  celestial  unit. 
As  such  its  essential  features  are  limited  in  number.  A 
mass  or  aggregation  of  masses  of  ponderable  matter 
whose  forces  are  self-neutraldzable,  and  which  are  iso- 
lated from  all  other  forces  by  an  interspace  of  im- 


162  MULTIPLE  STARS 

ponderable  ether,  to  the  extent  of  being  kinetically  in- 
dependent. The  forces  of  a  celestial  unit  form  a  central 
Sun  and  an  induction  or  neutralization  field.  In 
the  central  Sun  is  stored  the  main  energy  of  the  sys- 
tem: (1)  a  static  force  from  which  straight  lines 
radiate  throughout  the  field,  and  which  induce  lineal 
motion;  and  (2)  a  current  electric  force  from  which 
circular  lines  of  force  radiate  throughout  the  field  and 
which  induce  circular  motion. 

In  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  binary  or  multi- 
ple stars  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  consider 
the  inter-relation  of  the  systems  of  the  universe,  or  the 
quantitative  relation  of  all  matter  and  all  force  to  all 
space.  There  must  be  a  pressure  existing  in  interstellar 
space  which  must  have  a  constant  minimum.  The  great 
ocean  of  ether  intervening  between  the  stars  must  have 
a  pressure  which  in  the  main  is  constant.  We  have 
concluded  that  the  reactions  of  the  forces  of  systems 
in  a  north  or  south  direction  is  neutralization  with  a 
static  equilibrium.  At  right  angles  to  this  direction  a 
repulsion  between  systems  exists.  Then  the  question 
resolves  itself  thus:  Can  a  body  with  solar  properties 
be  placed  within  the  induction  field  of  another  Sun? 
This  is  similar  to  imparting  solar  properties,  say  to 
Jupiter,  and  in  an  earlier  period  of  planetary  life  the 
possession  of  such  properties  is  possible.  What  changes 
would  be  required  to  make  Jupiter  a.  Sun?  Simply  a 
change  in  his  electric  relations  whereby  his  currents 
would  become  primary  to  those  of  his  satellites.  At 
an  earlder  period  before  Jupiter  attained  his  present 
equilibrium  his  mass  was  contracting  and  consequently 
emitting  heat.  This  heat  being  incident  to  his  satel- 
lites would  be  converted  into  electric  currents,  and  re- 
turned as  electric  energy  to  Jupiter.  A  thermo  elec- 
tric cycle  would  be  thus  established  between  Jupiter 


MULTIPLE  STARS  163 

and  his  satellites.  Jupiter,  however,  as  a  positive  body, 
may  have  maintained  his  present  orbit  in  obedience  to 
the  currents  of  the  Sun.  Neither  Jupiter  nor  the  Sun 
was  as  large  as  at  present,  but  Jupiter  may  have  been 
relatively  larger  than  now,  and  might  have  approached 
being  able  to  swing  the  Sun.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  orbital  motion  is  not  a  result  of  a  reaction  be- 
tween two  current  forces  but  between  current  and 
static  forces.  An  interesting  system  of  motion  then  ob- 
*  tained.  The  inner  planets  revolved  round  the  Sun;  the 
present  Jovial  satellites  and  other  asteroidal  bodies  re- 
volved round  Jupiter;  and  the  outer  planets  with  the 
common  atmosphere  revolved  round  both  the  Sun  and 
Jupiter.  The  Sun  and  Jupiter  revolved  round  each 
other  as  twin  stars.  The  mutual  reactions  would  be: 
The  static  forces  of  Jupiter  would  obey  the  electric 
currents  of  the  Sun;  and  the  static  forces  of  the  Sun 
would  obey  the  electric  currents  of  Jupiter.  The  Sun 
being  the  larger  and  more  central  body  extended  his 
dominion  and  took  possession  of  Jupiter's  electric  cur- 
rents, and  thus  Jupiter  was  subjected  to  planetary  con- 
ditions. In  Fig.  13  we  see  pictured  individual  and 
common  fields  revolving  round  electric  currents.  Per- 
haps if  the  primary  conductors  were  free  to  move  they 
would  revolve  round  each  other.  We  have  so  far  con- 
sidered the  Sun  and  Jupiter  as  binary  stars,  but  Saturn 
or  any  of  the  other  planets  might  have  an  element 
of  a  multiple  star.  Multiple  stars  indicate  a  phase  of 
the  great  cycle  in  solar  systems.  The  order  is  some- 
what as  follows: 

Complete  nebulae;  spiral  nebulae;  star  nebulae;  bi- 
nary stars,  solar  planetary  systems.  The  last  evolving 
into  the  first  by  solar  extension.  Each  phase  establishes 
an  equilibrium  in  reference  to  space. 


164  MULTIPLE  STARS 

It  is  possible  that  during  initiatory  condensation  two 
bodies  might  be  formed  equal  in  dimensions  and  of 
equal  distance  from  the  center  of  the  system.  Such 
bodies  would  revolve  round  a  common  center  and 
might  maintain  particular  systems  of  planets,  but  in 
the  end  they  would  become  one  body.  This  conclusion 
is  inevitable  because  each  body  would  continue  to  grow 
and  hence  extend  its  influence  over  the  other.  Their 
orbits  would  thus  contract  until  they  would  ultimately 
unite.  Orbits  of  planets  contract  because  the  Sun's 
forces  increase  and  the  planetary  bodies  cationize  and 
hence  gravitational  force  doubly  increases.  It  is  thus 
with  twin  stars.  Planets  are  kept  apart  from  the  Sun 
(1)  by  the  impenetrability  of  like  fields  of  force;  (2) 
by  repulsion  between  electric  currents  of  opposite  di- 
rection; (3)  by  the  momentum  according  to  the  New- 
ton law,  and  (4)  by  repulsion  of  the  negative  force 
of  the  south  pole  of  the  Sun.  These  forces  are  not 
constant  throughout  the  orbits.  In  the  case  of  binary 
stars  a  very  important  element  of  repulsion  is  with- 
drawn, and  attraction  substituted.  The  electric  cur- 
rents of  binary  stars  are  similar  in  direction  and  hence 
the  circular  Lines  of  force  tend  to  bring  the  currents 
together.  (5)  The  relation  of  all  matter  and  all 
force  to  all  space.  This  is  the  most  important  element 
in  the  equilibration  of  solar  systems  in  their  relation 
to  each  other  and  to  space.  If  a  star  were  eliminated 
from  the  universe  the  others  would  modify  their  lines 
of  force  and  the  evacuated  star-space  would  again  be 
filled  with  matter  and  force.  Perhaps  the  modification 
would  be  such  as  to  fill  the  star-space  with  another  star. 

True  binary  stars,  that  is  those  physically  connected, 
must  belong  to  the  same  system  and  will  ultimately 
form  one  Sun,  or  assume  the  relation  of  Sun  and  Planet. 


THE  UNIVERSE  165 

Binary  phenomena  may  furnish  evidence  as  to  the  di- 
mension of  solar  systems.  It  appears  that  our  system  is 
small  when  compared  to  some  others. 

That  orbits  of  multiple  stars  are  elliptical  is  evidence 
of  the  polarity  of  at  least  one  of  the  bodies.  That  the 
ellipse  approaches  rotundity  is  evidence  that  the  two 
bodies  are  polar.  This  conclusion  is  apparent  when  we 
study  the  Earth's  orbit.  After  a  system  has  clearly 
evolved  from  the  nebulous  period,  when  the  matter  of  a 
body  has  reached  by  its  own  initiative  a  physical  equilib- 
rium, the  emission  of  light  (not  previously  absorbed) 
is  evidence  of  the  polarity  of  a  body  with  a  system 
of  tributary  planets.  In  fact  apart  from  the  glimmer 
of  nebulous  matter,  and  apart  from  reflected  light  of 
planetary  bodies,  the  constant  luminosity  of  an  astron- 
omical body  is  evidence  of  its  being  a  Sun,  a  polar  body 
with  tributary  planets. 


THE  UNIVERSE 

We  conclude  that  the  universe  is  infinite.  Matter 
from  its  basic  properties  diffuses  until  space  is  filled.  A 
solid  mass  is  evidence  that  all  space  is  filled.  The  char- 
acter of  ether,  as  deduced  from  our  hypothesis,  implies 
a  certain  relation  to  space,  which,  if  altered,  would 
alter  its  molecular  quantity.  The  assumption  of  an 
ether  infinite  as  space  implies  a  universal  minimum 
pressure  with  a  constant  molecular  quantity  for  funda- 
mental matter.  This  again  implies  universal  conden- 
sations— an  infinite  number  of  solar  systems  as  cosmic 
units.  The  units,  however,  may  vary  in  the  quantities  of 
their  potential  energies,  in  their  material  quantities,  in 
their  spacial  amplitude,  in  their  planetary  details,  in  the 


166  THE  UNIVERSE 

periods  of  their  cyclic  phases  and  to  limited  extent  in 
their  equatorial  planes;  but  the  general  principles  of 
their  constitution,  of  their  kinetic  forces,  and  of  their 
cyclic  changes,  must  be  the  same.  As  the  ether  must  be 
universal  so  the  cathode  particle  must  be  the  ultimate 
unit  of  ponderable  matter  of  the  universe.  The  amount 
of  light  emitted  by  a  Sun-star  may  not  be  proportional 
to  its  material  magnitude,  but  the  character  of  the  color 
elements  of  light  must  be  universely  identical,  although 
the  physiological  appreciation  may  differentiate.  If  our 
deduction  be  correct  that  a  color  corpuscle  lengthens 
transversely  as  it  diffuses  this  may  be  a  basic  element 
in  measuring  the  distance  of  the  stars. 

A  solar  system  like  an  ether  molecule  is  in  cosmic 
equilibrium,  and  the  equilibration  is  safe-guarded  by 
opposite  presentation  of  negative  circumferential  bands 
between  which  a  reaction  must  partake  of  the  character 
of  repulsion.  A  repelling  reaction  between  systems  im- 
plies a  universal  relationship  between  solar  systems  and 
infinite  space — that  each  system  according  to  intrinsic 
conditions  has  allotted  to  it  spacial  requirements  by 
exigencies  of  force.  Thus  there  is  inferred  a  universal 
pressure  depending  on  the  quantitative  relation  of  all 
matter  and  alL  force  to  all  space,  for  otherwise  matter 
would  diffuse  infinitely.  The  variations  in  its  cyclic 
phases  and  the  changes  from  molecular  to  electrical 
potentials  will  alter  the  inductive  forces  of  a  solar  sys- 
tem, and  thus  induce  periods  of  contraction  and  ex- 
pansion which  will  modify  the  amplitude  of  its  induc- 
tion field.  These  changes  account  for  the  "drift"  of 
solar  systems.  For,  if  in  the  neighborhood  of  our  solar 
system  star-systems  are  contracting  or  expanding,  we 
must  necessarily  alter  our  relative  position  to  the  sys- 
tems. The  systems  are  not  bound  on  hard  and  fast 
lines  but  mutually  supported  as  by  elastic  cushions. 


THE  UNIVERSE  167 

The  material  changes  occurring  in  a  partial  vacuum 
evince  that  matter  and  force  maintain  a  certain  re- 
lation to  space.  The  comet  expands  as  it  leaves  the 
Sun,  thus  maintaining  a  spacial  equilibration.  Theo- 
retically, we  find  no  property  of  matter  that  would  con- 
fine it  to  finite  space.  On  the  other  hand,  if  by  any 
means  matter  were  limited,  it  would  diffuse  infinitely 
by  its  inherent  properties.  The  condensation  of  matter 
to  the  solid  form  is  incidental  to  a  universal  pressure. 

The  universe  is  infinite,  matter  and  force  are  infinite, 
and  solar  systems  are  numerically  infinite. 

In  Fig.  25  let  the  perpendicular  lines  represent  equa- 
torial planes  of  Suns.  The  negative  signs  at  the  term- 
inals of  these  lanes  will  denote  the  anion  qualities  of  the 
rims.  Let  the  transverse  lines  represent  polar  planes 
of  Suns.  The  plus  and  negative  signs  will  denote  the 
cation  and  anion  qualities  respectively  of  the  north 
and  south  poles.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  systems  are 
in  static  equilibrium.  The  reaction  between  rims  is  one  of 
repulsion  up  to  the  point  of  establishing  equilibration. 
The  reaction  between  positive  and  negative  poles  is  neu- 
tralization, but  in  the  absence  of  any  variation  in  the 
pressure  the  medium  remains  statically  equilibrated.  The 
reaction  between  positives  is  confined  to  the  interior  of 
the  systems,  and  hence  there  are  no  kinetic  forces  exer- 
cised between  the  systems,  although,  no  doubt,  there  is 
some  neutralization.  Kinetically  each  solar  system  of 
infinite  space  is  independent  unity,  and  the  quantitative 
relation  of  all  matter  and  all  force  to  all  space  deter- 
mines the  dimensions  of  the  plot  allotted  to  each. 

COSMIC     REFLECTIONS. 

A  planetary  system  would  fall  to  pieces,  like  an 
oxygen  molecule  in  a  partial  vacuum,  if  it  were  not 


168  COSMIC  REFLECTIONS 

bolstered  up  by  other  systems.  The  light  from  the  stars 
is  evidence  of  a  medium  of  force  in  interstellar  space, 
and  the  properties  of  matter  demand  that  all  space  be 
occupied.  The  grand  equilibrium  of  all  matter  and  all 
force  in  all  space  under  a  universal  pressure  must  be 
a  determining  factor  in  the  production  of  natural 
phenomena.  If  the  solar  system  be  accepted  as  a 
cosmic  unit,  then  we  can  conceive  that  the  systems  are 
arranged  in  some  form  or  order,  in  which  their  positive 
poles  in  general  point  to  the  celestial  north,  and  their 
negative  poles  to  the  celestial  south;  all  in  harmonious 
adjustment,  each  passing  through  independent  cycles, 
but  each  exercising  a  polarizing  influence  on  environing 
systems;  each  possessing  all  the  essential  forces  for  its 
own  evolutionary  processes,  yet  evolving  in  complete 
unison  with  interstellar  forces.  Each  unit  system  must 
possess  a  domain  directly  proportional  to  the  magnitude 
of  its  forces,  and  must  bear  a  constant  relationship  to 
the  universal  equilibrium,  the  maintenance  of  which 
must  furnish  a  resistance  to  the  mutual  encroachment 
of  planetary  systems. 

The  equilibrium  of  all  matter  in  space  must  bear  a 
certain  analogy  to  the  equilibrium  of  a  given  amount  of 
gas  in  a  partial  vacuum.  With  the  decrement  of  pres- 
sure the  molecules  divide  and  redivide  until  an  equili- 
brated condition  is  attained,  chemic  affinity  is  over- 
come and  the  law  seems  to  be:  As  the  pressure  de- 
creases the  molecules  decrease  in  dimensions  and  in- 
crease in  inductive  force,  with  increased  fields  of  in- 
duction which  fill  the  space.  Up  to  the  critical  point 
the  vacuum  tube  is  occupied  by  force  from  the  increased 
potentials  of  the  dissociating  molecules,  whose  fields  of 
induction  in  the  aggregate  are  commensurate  with  the 
space.  It  is  conceivable  that  if  the  solar  systems  were 
reduced  in  number  within  a  given  space  the  others 


COSMIC  REFLECTIONS  169 

would  so  adjust  themselves  that  all  space  would  be  filled 
with  force,  the  universal  equilibrium  being  thus  main- 
tained as  the  equilibrium  in  a  partial  vacuum  is  main- 
tained. 

Astronomers  describe  a  great  luminous  starry  band 
encircling  the  solar  system  called  the  Galaxy  or  Milky 
Way.  This  band  apparently  is  relatively  immovable, 
while  the  solar  system  revolves  on  its  axis  within,  and 
occupies  part  of  the  area  enclosed  by  the  band.  It  was 
Herschel's  opinion  that  the  plane  of  the  Galaxy  bears 
the  same  relation  to  the  universe  as  the  ecliptic  plane  to 
the  solar  system.  The  galactic  plane  cuts  the  ecliptic 
plane  at  an  angle  of  about  60°.  We  will  substitute  the 
solar  equatorial  plane  for  the  ecliptic. 

The  stars  in  the  celestial  vault,  as  seen  through  a 
telescope,  are  mostly  condensed  near  the  galactic  belt, 
appear  less  numerous  in  the  regions  most  distant  from 
it,  and  more  numerous  the  nearer  the  region  is  to  it. 
With  powerful  telescopes  a  large  majority  of  stars  are 
actually  observed  in  the  Galaxy.  The  nebulae  appear 
as  irregular  masses  of  luminous  clouds,  and  appear  to  be 
most  numerous  where  the  stars  are  the  least  numerous, 
or,  the  more  distant  the  region  from  the  Milky  Way  the 
greater  the  number  of  nebulae  are  observed. 

If  Herschel's  idea  is  correct,  there  are  two  great  cos- 
mographical  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other:  One 
drawn  through  the  "galactic  equator,"  and  indicating 
in  general,  the  direction  of  the  equatorial  planes  of  the 
universe;  and  the  other  drawn  through  "galactic  poles" 
indicating  in  general  the  direction  of  the  poles  of  the 
universe.  It  is  conceivable  that  an  infinite  number  of 
lines  of  infinite  length  drawn  parallel  to  the  solar 
equatorial  line  may  pass  through  the  equatorial  planes 
of  an  infinite  number  of  galaxies.  The  conception  may 


170  COSMIC  REFLECTIONS 

be  expressed  thus:  At  whatever  point  of  space  an  ob- 
server may  be  placed,  that  point  will  be  where  the 
"equatorial  plane"  of  a  galaxy  is  cut  by  a  line  drawn 
through  its  "poles."  The  conception  implies  that  the 
view  we  have  of  the  starry  universe  is,  in  the  main,  the 
view  presented  independently  of  the  location  of  the 
viewpoint. 

A  solar  system  must  vary  in  appearances:  (1)  Ac- 
cording to  the  phase  of  the  cycle  through  which  it  is 
passing,  and  (2)  according  to  whether  the  polar  or 
equatorial  aspect  of  the  system  is  presented.  The  dis- 
tance intervening,  the  dimensions  of  the  system,  and  the 
medium  through  which  its  light  is  transmitted,  must 
be  modifying  factors.  Accepting  our  solar  system  as  a 
cosmographical  unit,  and  keeping  in  mind  its  equatorial 
and  polar  aspects,  the  question  presents:  Whether 
cosmographical  units  are  thrown  into  space  promis- 
cuously, or  are  arranged  in  some  general  order?  It  is 
true  that  the  ecliptic  plane  (or  plane  of  solar  equator) 
does  not  parallel  the  galactic  plane  as  one  might  pre- 
dict ;  but  if  we  consider  the  form  of  star  spaces  as  being 
elliptical  (probably  slightly  distorted  by  cosmic  pres- 
sure), and  that  all  space  is  occupied,  not  only  by  matter, 
but  by  solar  systems,  then  it  is  evident  that  all  unit 
systems  cannot  be  arranged  on  exactly  parallel  lines. 
Although  generally  their  equatorial  and  polar  planes 
may  be  uniformly  disposed.  Our  system  may  be  placed 
so  as  to  fill  a  nook  of  the  universe,  and  hence  the  neces- 
sity of  its  lines  being  oblique  to  the  general  direction. 
Moreover,  if  solar  systems  are  endowed  with  the  proper 
polarity,  then  their  tendency  to  arrange  themselves  in 
uniform  direction  is  indisputable.  Thus  Herschel's  great 
conception  of  the  galactic  plane  being  an  indication  of 
an  universal  order  must  be  correct. 


COSMIC  REFLECTIONS  171 

If  we  mentally  picture  the  simple  arrangement  of 
solar  systems  being  placed  so  that  their  lines  in  the 
main  are  uniformly  directed,  we  will  see  that  when  we 
point  our  telescopes  in  the  general  equatorial  direction 
we  are  on  the  line  of  incidence  of  the  equatorial  blaze 
of  innumerable  suns,  each  a  center  of  a  star-space.  The 
reflected  light  of  their  tributary  planets,  aurora  po- 
laris,  or  any  other  evidence  of  planetary  systems,  we 
have  not,  these  being  darkened  by  the  relatively 
brighter  Light  of  their  respective  suns.  Nor  does  it 
matter  much,  except  as  to  the  brilliancy  of  the  partic- 
ular star,  in  what  stage  of  evolution  the  system  is  pre- 
sented to  us;  only,  if  the  solar  dimensions  have  reached 
that  critical  point  where  electric  energy  is  absent  from 
the  space,  the  space  will  be  a  celestial  dark  spot.  Prob- 
ably the  most  brilliant  evolutionary  stage  of  a  sun  is 
when  his  dimensions  are  about  equal  to  half  of  those 
of  his  maximum  growth.  At  this  period  probably  the 
maximum  amount  of  energy  is  being  absorbed  at  its 
poles,  and  such  energy  will  regulate  the  intensities  of 
its  equatorial  light.  The  qualifying  term  "equatorial" 
may  be  objected  to,  as  apparently  our  Sun  gives  out 
light  from  his  whole  presenting  surface,  but  it  must  be 
understood  that  the  photosphere  is  a  dispenser  of  light; 
and  that  we  mean  to  convey  the  idea  that  transforma- 
tion of  electric  energy  occurs  in  the  central  sun,  and 
radiates  as  heat  and  light  along  his  equatorial  plane. 

Now  let  us  turn  our  telescopes  towards  the  celestial 
north  or  celestial  south.  We  are  looking  along  the 
polar  planes  of  the  systems,  and  we  have  a  side  view 
of  solar-planetary  wheels.  Mainly,  we  are  in  the 
shadows  of  polar  energies,  although  here  and  there  the 
electric  light  from  some  great  sun  obliquely  pierces  the 
spaces.  Furthermore,  in  viewing  the  polar  aspect  of  the 


172  COSMIC  REFLECTIONS 

systems,  we  may  be  able  to  judge,  from  polar  activities, 
what  particular  phase  of  its  cycle  a  system  is  mani- 
festing. If  we  could  interpret  the  significance  of  the 
manifestations  we  might  know  the  relative  dimensions 
of  a  Sun  to  those  of  his  planetary  domain.  It  is,  how- 
ever, to  be  considered  that  a  solar  mass  from  the  polar 
aspect  may  show  as  a  relatively  dark  spot,  radiating 
energy  being  here  absorbed,  while  the  soft  diffusive 
light  may  be  the  stream  of  electrified  ions  emanating 
from  the  various  poles  of  tributary  planets.  For  in- 
stance, a  nebula  in  Lyra  presents  a  comparatively 
dark  central  area  which  may  be  a  polar  presentation  of 
an  immense  sun;  while  the  surrounding  lighter  area 
may  be  a  polar  view  of  its  photosphere;  the  accom- 
panying planets  being  outside  of  the  latter  area,  and 
emitting  auroral  light  from  their  poles.  This,  viewed 
from  its  equatorial  aspect  as  others  in  a  galactic  arch, 
may  twinkle  as  an  ordinary  star.  The  nebula  of 
Andromeda  appears  as  an  oblique  presentation  of  a 
solar  planetary  space  during  the  cyclic  epoch  of  maxi- 
mum diffusibility  when  matter  exists  in  band  form  with 
intervening  ether  spaces.  The  Andromedal  sun  evi- 
dently forms  a  central  rod  (Fig.  21). 

Could  solar  systems  revolve  around  a  common  center? 
No.  An  orbital  revolution  is  caused  by  current  forces, 
and  an  extraneous  force  sufficiently  great  to  cause  a 
solar  system  to  revolve  round  it,  would  interfere  with 
intrinsic  forces,  and  produce  a  relationship  of  the 
planets  to  the  Sun,  such  as  the  Moon's  relation  to  the 
Earth.  The  mutual  influences  of  solar  systems  are 
lineal  in  character  and  produce  only  polarized  effects. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  heat  and  light  will  directly 
produce  rotatory  movements,  although  it  is  conceiv- 
able that  they  may  possess  a  repulsive  force,  and  thus 


COSMIC  REFLECTIONS  173 

be  a  cause  of  cosmic  pressure.  It  is  only  when  these 
forces  are  transformed  into  electric  currents  that 
rotation  occurs.  The  transformation  takes  place 
through  the  presentation  of  differential  or  polarized 
potentials  to  the  incident  forces,  and  no  such  presenta- 
tion is  made  by  a  solar  system  as  a  whole,  although  its 
individual  parts  possess  the  essential  polarities.  Heat  or 
light  passing  from  one  solar  system  to  another  main- 
tains its  distinctive  character  as  a  displacement  move- 
ment or  wave  motion,  and  can  have  only  local  effects 
at  the  points  of  incidence.  In  the  broadest  sense  of  the 
term,  interstellar  forces  may  be  classified  as  follows: 
(1)  Radiating  forces  (heat  and  light)  producing,  if 
any,  only  chemic  and  physical  changes  in  matter;  (2) 
static  forces  producing  polarization. 

When  we  study  the  character  of  electric  charges  and 
currents  differentiated  according  to  their  positive  or 
negative  quality;  when  we  study  the  chemical  and  phy- 
sical character  of  molecules  differentiated  according  to 
their  positive  or  negative  quality;  when  we  study  the 
physiologic  properties  of  animal  cells  and  tissues,  ex- 
hibited through  the  intricacies  and  delicacies  of  laby- 
rinthian  structure,  yet  reducible  to  the  common  and 
ultimate  units  of  attraction  and  repulsion;  and  when 
we  compare  these  differentiations  with  those  mani- 
fested in  phenomena  pertaining  to  the  Sun,  planets 
and  comets,  as  constituting  a  unit  system,  we  must  con- 
clude that,  however  complex  may  be  the  problems  pre- 
sented for  solution,  they  must  be  solved  through  the 
formulation  of  a  hypothesis  basic  to  a  generalization. 
The  writer  believes  that  the  correctness  of  his  concep- 
tion of  electric  charges  being  composed  of  differential 
elementary  units  of  matter  is  evidenced  by  the  simple 
facts  of  natural  phenomena,  and  that  in  this  concep- 


174  COSMIC  REFLECTIONS 

tion  there  is  indicated  a  ground  work  upon  which  the 
physical  structure  of  the  universe  is  built;  leaving, 
however,  untouched  the  genetic  problems  of  unit  matter, 
the  reasonable  solution  of  which  is  to  suppose  that 
there  were  no  genesis. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
Illustrations. 


Fig.  1 

Fig.  1  —  Ether  Molecules:  The  figure  shows  purely 
positive  matter  central,  and  purely  negative  matter 
circumferential.  These  are  the  smallest  molecules  in 
the  Universe,  each  constituted  of  two  atoms,  which  are 
electric  units.  Mark  the  absence  of  an  induction  field. 
The  molecules  are  under  a  pressure  which  is  not  suf- 
ficiently great  to  obliterate  the  interspace. 


Fig.  2. 

Fig.  2  —  The  Cathode  Particle  :  The  ponderable  ul- 
timate possesses  a  positive  free  force  surrounded  by  an 
induction  field.  When  negatively  electrified  it  is  the 
ultimate  of  the  cathode  ray.  The  unelectrified  particle 
is  constituted  of  two  positive  electric  units  and  one 
negative.  The  cathode  particle  and  the  positive  and 
negative  ether  atoms  are  the  only  indivisible  particles  in 
the  universe  under  the  quantitative  relation  of  matter 
to  space.  Under  extreme  decrement  of  pressure  the 
anode  particle  is  found  to  be  many  times  the  size  of 


176 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


the  cathode  particle  and  is  probably  reduced  in  dimen 
sions  by  the  squeeze  of  increased  pressure. 


\     I     I 


Fig.  3. 

Fig.  3 — The  Primary  Forces:  Attraction  between 
positives;  repulsion  between  negatives,  and  neutraliza- 
tion between  positives  and  negatives.  The  inner  arrows 
between  the  two  positive  bodies  indicates  the  impenetra- 
bility of  like  induction  fields.  As  ether  is  imponderable 
it  always  presents  its  neutralizing  pole  to  the  primary 
force  (Fig.  15). 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


177 


ygvte 


N 


."! '^"'i'!!!, 


Fig.  4-A. 


Fig.  4-C. 


Fig.  4-B 

Fig.  4 — Lines  of  Force:  A,  B,  and  C  show  secon- 
dary forces,  or  acquired  properties  of  induction  fields; 
elastic  strain  between  positive  and  negative  forces,  and 
mutual  impenetrability  of  like  fields. 


178 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig.  5 — Reactions  of  Fields  of  Force:  A  shows  lines 
of  force  from  two  bodies  differing  in  the  quality  and 
quantity  of  their  electrifications.  B  shows  two  bodies 
having  electric  potentials  of  the  same  quality,  but  dif- 
fering in  quantity,  the  lines  of  forces  showing  distortion 
and  impenetrability  of  the  field  to  a  like  field. 


Fig.  6 — The  Solar-Planetary  Wheel,  as  viewed 
from  the  North:  Positive  matter  is  concentrated  to- 
ward the  center,  and  negative  matter  is  diffused  towards 
the  rim- — the  rim  being  the  common  atmosphere  of  the 
system.  The  electric  currents  of  the  Sun  drive  positive 
matter  in  one  direction  and  negative  matter  in  the  op- 
posite. The  solar  negative  current  is  receding  and  the 
solar  positive  is  approaching  us;  and  positive  matter  is 
circulating  from  right  to  left  and  negative  matter  from 
left  to  right  in  the  upper  semi-cycle.  (See  Figs.  15,  16, 
and  17.)  Not  drawn  to  scale. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


179 


Fig.  6. 


180 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig.  7. 

Fig.  7— A  Cycle  of  Energy— -S,  Sun;  E,  Earth: 
A,  heat  and  light  emanating  from  the  Sun  dissociate 
into  electric  currents  indicated  by  B;  the  latter  emerg- 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  181 

ing  from  the  terrestrial  poles  as  convection  currents, 
respectively  positive  ions  negatively  charged,  and  nega- 
tive ions  positively  charged  indicated  by  C  and  D;  the 
currents  continue  through  the  Sun  as  conduction  cur- 
rents, G  and  H;  leaving  uncharged  ions  at  the  poles  of 
the  Sun,  L  and  M,  positive  ions  at  the  north  and  nega- 
tive ions  at  the  south.  The  transformation  of  the  cur- 
rents G  and  H  into  heat  and  light  completes  the  normal 
cycle.  An  ionic  slip  from  the  solar  poles  and  an  electric 
leak  from  the  terrestrial  poles  manifest  respectively  as 
sun-spots,  S  S,  and  earthquake,  F  F' ;  the  irregular 
lines  denoting  heat  or  earthquake  waves,  F  the  focal  and 
F'  the  emergent  point.  The  cyclic  energy  follows  a 
thermo-electric  circuit,  the  Earth  being  a  thermo-electric 
cell,  and  the  Sun  an  electrolyte. 


Fig.    8. 

Fig.  8 — Arc  Light:  Electrified  ions  pass  from  anode 
to  cathode,  tearing  down  the  former  and  building  up  the 
latter.  Similarly  to  the  cathode  the  solar  poles  are 
built  up.  The  terrestrial  north  is  hollowed  out  by  the 
escape  of  ions;  while  the  terrestrial  south  is  built  up  by 
a  positive  residuum. 


182 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig.    9. 


.  9 — Aurora  Polaris:  A  convective  electric  cur- 
rent from  a  pole  of  the  Earth  seeks  a  pole  of  the  Sun, 
estimated  to  be  seen  as  high  as  600  miles. 


Fig.  10-A. 


Fig.  10-B. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


183 


Fig.  10-  A  —  Sun  Spot:  The  dark  part  indicates  pure 
ether  set  free  by  the  neutralization  of  electric  currents. 
B  denotes  a  cross  section  of  a  heated  metallic  rod,  the 
ether  separating  matter  round  the  rod,  and  parting  the 
air  as  it  escapes  upwards  —  a  miniature  sun  spot. 


oo 


O 

o 

oooooo  o  o  o  o  o  o  o  o  o  o  o  o  o  o  o 

Fig.    11. 


Fig.  11  —  An  Electrolyte:  Free  positive  ions  at  the 
positive  pole  and  free  negative  ions  at  the  negative 
pole  furnish  polar  potencies. 


184 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig.  12— A  Thermo-Electric  Cell:  Heat  applied  at 
A  is  transmitted  as  electricity  to  B,  and  evolved  as 
heat  at  the  latter  point.  Compare  the  critical  points 
indicated  in  this  Fig.  to  those  indicated  in  Fig.  7. 


Fig.   13. 


Fig.  13 — Reactions  of  Electric  Currents :  Attraction 
of  currents  of  the  same  and  repulsion  of  those  of 
opposite  direction  are  shown.  The  arrows  denote  the 
direction  of  the  whirl. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


EMBER  21 


)L5TICE. 


A 


^ 


Q, 


MARCH  20 
ELQU|lNOX 

Fig.    14. 


JUNE  2 1 
30L5TICE 


Fig.  14 — The  Terrestrial  Orbit:  The  broken  lines 
indicate  Normal  Circularity;  the  unbroken  line  the 
Earth's  Orbit;  the  plane  of  the  paper  indicates  the 
Plane  of  the  Ecliptic ;  and  the  radiating  lines  the  Plane 
of  the  Sun's  Equator.  The  letters  N  and  S  denote 
the  proximate  poles  of  the  Sun  and  Earth.  The  North 
Pole  of  the  Sun  points  upward.  The  eccentricity  of 
the  Earth's  Orbit  and  the  points  at  which  the  ellipse 
cuts  the  circle  are  only  approximately  indicated. 


186 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig.   15. 

Fig.  15— Rotation  within  an  Electric  Field:  The 
north  seeking  pole  N  revolves  from  left  to  right  when 
the  positive  current  passes  from  A  to  B.  Matter  as  a 
simple  transductor  of  force  presents  its  neutralizing 
pole  to  the  primary  force.  A  body  acted  upon  kineti- 
cally  will  present  its  positive  pole  to  the  acting  force, 
whether  that  force  is  positive  or  negative  (Fig.  3) ; 
although  a  counter  force  may  disturb  this  rule. 


Fig.  16-A. 


*/*'*'*'*'**•  \ 


Fig.  16-B. 


fe-21 — >• 


Fig.  16-C. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


187 


Fig.  16 — Rotatory  Direction:  A  shows  the  relative 
direction  of  an  electric  current  and  the  induced  whirl. 
The  Fig.  indicates  the  direction  of  the  positive  current 
and  the  direction  of  positive  matter  around  it.  Com- 
pare the  directions  with  those  indicated  in  Fig.  6.  B 
shows  induced  field  of  electric  current  (cross-section). 
C  shows  a  revolution  of  the  ether  round  a  current 
(longitudinal). 


Fig.   17. 


Fig.  17 — Positive  Concentrativeness :  Differential 
clotting  of  blood  at  positive  and  negative  electrodes 
manifest  positive  Concentrativeness  and  negative  dif- 
fusibility,  as  shown  by  the  relative  size  and  shades  of 
the  poles  of  the  figure. 


188 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig.  18- A. 


Fig.  18-B. 


Fig.  18 — Negative  Diff usibility :  A.  The  broken  lines 
indicate  the  shape  of  the  cathode,  the  rays  from  which 
diffuse  under  great  decrement  of  pressure,  and  assume 
the  form  of  the  phosphorescent  pattern.  B.  Electrodes 
of  such  relative  size  as  to  give  maximum  spark  are 
shown,  thus  demonstrating  a  concentrative  positive  and 
a  diffusive  negative  electricity. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


189 


19. 


Fig.  19 — A  glimpse  through  the  Moon — A  conception 
of  her  Distant  Surface:  Next  to  the  Earth  the  Moon's 
conditions  are  favorable  to  the  evolution  of  the  organic 
cell. 


Fig.  20.     Ring  Nebula  in  Constellation  of  Lyra. 


190 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig.   21. 


Fig.  21 — The  Nebula  Andromeda  (from  Mr.  Rob- 
ert's photograph) :  The  figure  shows  a  polar  view  of 
a  great  solar  system. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


191 


'  '  > 


Fig.  22-A. 


Fig.  22-B. 


Fig.  22 — Lines  of  Force:     A  shows  magnetic  lines, 
and  B  shows  electric  lines. 


192 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig.   23. 


Fig.  23— The  Earth's  Magnetism:  It  indicates  the 
induction  field  of  the  terrestrial  body  as  a  magneto- 
electrolyte. 


Fig.   24. 


Fig.  24 — Moon's  Path  with  reference  to  the  Sun 
(Young)  :  The  satellite  always  moves  forward  in  its 
orbit  round  the  Sun. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


193 


14- 


Fig.   25. 


Fig.  25 — Cosmic  Concepts:  If  the  perpendicular 
lines  represent  equatorial  planes  of  Suns,  the  negative 
signs  at  the  terminals  of  these  lines  will  denote  the 
anion  qualities  of  the  rims  of  systems.  If  the  trans- 
verse lines  represent  polar  planes  of  Suns,  the  plus 
and  minus  signs  will  denote  the  cation  and  anion  quali- 
ties respectively  of  the  north  and  south  poles.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  systems  are  in  static  equilibrium.  The 
reaction  between  rims  is  one  of  repulsion  up  to  the 


194 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


point  of  establishing  equilibration.  The  reaction  be- 
tween positive  and  negative  poles  is  neutralization,  but 
in  the  absence  of  a  greater  pressure  the  medium  re- 
mains statically  equilibrated.  The  reaction  between 
positives  is  confined  to  the  interior  of  the  systems,  and 
hence  there  are  no  kinetic  forces  exercised  between  the 
systems,  although  no  doubt  there  is  some  neutraliza- 
tion. Kinetically  each  solar  system  of  infinite  space 
is  independent  unity,  and  the  quantitative  relation  of 
all  matter  and  all  force  to  all  space  determines  the 
dimensions  of  the  plot  allotted  to  each,  and  also  the 
equilibration  of  the  interstellar  medium. 


Fig.   26. 


Fig.  26 — Spiral  Induction:  The  lines  indicate  the 
second  phase  in  the  spiral  form  of  nebulae:  N,  the 
north  or  positive  pole  of  an  electrolyte;  S,  the  south  or 
negative.  The  upper  line  represents  a  primary  electro- 
lyte with  currents  in  constant  direction.  The  three 
lower  lines  represent  bodies  with  induced  polarities 
and  which  will  assume  the  spiral  form  if  circulating 
round  the  upper. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


195 


Fig.   27. 


Fig.  27 — Spiral  Nebula  (Roberts) :  We  see  here  two 
planets  in  embryo  and  in  cometary  form,  and  evidently 
in  circular  motion.  This  means  the  presence  of  electric 
force,  which  implies  a  sun  and  at  least  one  polar  body 
as  a  planet. 


196 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


28. 


Fig.  28 — Solar  Eclipse:  This  indicates  differential 
polar  and  equatorial  radiations.  Slight  radiations 
manifest  to  the  north  and  south.  (By  Chabot-Dolbeer 
Eclipse  Expedition.) 


ILLUSTRATIONS.  197 


Fig.   29. 

Fig.  29 — Lines  of  Force:  Consider  the  central  part 
of  the  figure  as  representing  a  mass  possessing  a  posi- 
tive free  force.  Then  it  radiates  lines  of  force  (Fara- 
day's) as  the  surrounding  polarizations  denote.  The 
free  force  may  be  that  of  a  molecule,  or  that  of  a  Sun. 
If  the  free  force  is  negative  the  induced  polarizations 
will  be  reversed.  Conceive  the  differential  effects  of 
these  lines  on  negative  matter  which  resists  concentra- 
tion and  on  positive  matter  which  tends  toward  con- 
centration, and  conceive  analogous  effects  of  solar  lines 
of  force  on  the  matter  of  the  solar  system. 


198  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


x      x'/''\V      xV!\*       x'«\.*       *,/!>* 


x*-!-**       xyL^X        X^+A-X        X^  +  ^r  X^  +  Ar 

„* 


Fig.   30. 

Fig.  30 — Pax  et  Strenuitas:  The  upper  figures  de- 
note forces  in  equilibrium.  They  represent  positive  and 
negative  electric  charges,  insulated,  and  surrounded  by 
induction  fields.  They  represent  molecules  surrounded 
by  induction  fields  or  intermolecular  spaces.  They  rep- 
resent masses  with  their  induction  fields.  The  ether  or 
other  matter  in  the  fields  is  shown  as  polarized  induc- 
tively by  the  primary  forces  of  the  central  masses. 
The  lower  figure  denotes  matter  under  strain.  It  rep- 
resents the  polarized,  magnetic,  or  crystalline  state. 
Each  ponderable  molecule  and  each  ether  molecule 
within  the  polar  fields  of  the  ponderable  molecules,  is 
shown  as  under  a  polarized  strain. 

It  is  important  to  note  that  an  equilibrated  molecule 
brought  within  the  induction  field  of  a  polarized  mole- 
cule will  itself  become  polarized.  This  indicates  the 
manner  in  which  a  crystal  grows,  and  also  the  manner 
in  which  a  wave  is  propagated  in  nerve  or  muscle 
tissue. 

Mark:  During  polarization,  in  definite  quantities, 
matter  may  be  associated  (1)  by  the  primary  mole- 
cules; (2)  by  the  polar  fields.  During  depolarization 
converse  changes  occur:  (1)  Dissociation  by  primary 
molecules;  (2)  dissociation  by  polar  fields.  Each  change 
is  an  important  factor  in  the  initiation  of  specific  phe- 
nomena. 

Polarization  and  depolarization  constitute  true  Vibra- 
tion. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


199 


•.  *"  + 

(--(       _J_       1-4— f          •-(--  + 

5*-\  ;-+,_          -* 


C          •f""^      x\  J  •+      r~"""'f 

*'VN— ^<"J'-t 

*'/m\\\ 
n'/iv 


x  > 


x'Ky 

•». 


;  v 


^-t- 


Fig.   31. 


Fig.  31 — Electric  and  Molecular  Forces:   A  and  B 

represent  electrically  charged  bodies,  surrounded  by  in- 
duction fields  demonstrated  by  the  conductors  C  and  D. 
E  and  F  denote  ponderable  molecules,  the  inner  circles 
showing  molecular  masses,  the  plus  and  minus  signs 
on  which  denote  the  qualities  of  the  molecular  free 
forces.  The  molecular  masses  are  surrounded  by 
fields  of  induction  in  which  ether  or  other  matter  is 
polarized  as  in  electric  fields.  The  chemic  union  of 
E  and  F  neutralizes  the  molecular  free  forces,  thus 
setting  free  ether  from  the  fields  of  induction.  The 
freed  ether  is  evolved  as  heat  if  it  maintains  its  molec- 
ular character,  as  electricity  if  it  is  split  up  into  atoms, 
or  as  light  if  it  is  corpusculated.  Suppose  the  positive 
molecules  E  represent  the  solid  matter  of  the  earth, 
the  negative  molecules  F  the  atmosphere,  and  that  water 
and  other  elements  essential  to  a  chemical  synthesis 


200 


are  present  at  the  boundary  line.  Radiant  energy  in- 
cident to  the  solid  surface  will  be  localized,  and  the 
pressure  (intensity  of,  multiplied  by  the  resistance  to 
radiation),  will  be  relieved  by  the  construction  of  an 
organic  cell-molecule.  (See  pages  98  and  104.) 


/  I 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
Light  and  Heat 

The  consideration  of  Light  divides  itself  as  follows: 

1.  The  character  of  the  initiatory  impulse. 

2.  The  character  of  the  medium  of  travel. 

3.  The  character  of  the  organic  cell  which  senses  the 
disturbance. 

4.  The  character  of  the  element  initiated,  that  trav- 
els, that  is  sensed,  and  that  is  the  chief  factor  in  the 
differentiation    of    phenomena   in    every    crisis    in    the 
course  of  light. 

5.  The  method  of  travel. 

The  Initiatory  Impulse.  It  is  necessary  to  define  the 
character  of  a  ponderable  molecule:  A  molecule  is  the 
ultimate  physical  unit  of  ponderable  matter,  separable 
from  surrounding  matter  by  an  intermolecular  space, 
differentiated  quantitatively  by  the  number  of  constitu- 
ent ultimate  atomic  units  (ether  atoms),  and  qualita- 
tively by  the  relative  number  of  positive  and  negative 
ether  atoms  in  its  constituency.  All  molecules  are 
equilibrates  sequential  to  the  quantitative  relation  of 
all  matter  and  all  force  to  all  space.  A  molecule  may 
possess  a  free  force  of  either  positive  or  negative  qual- 
ity. The  quantity  of  a  molecular  free  force  is  directly 
proportional  to  the  excess  of  either  the  positive  or  nega- 
tive constituents  over  the  other,  and  is  inductively  rep- 
resented by  the  degree  of  polarization  of  the  matter 


202  LIGHT. 

within  the  intermolecular  space.  No  interspaces  exist 
within  the  molecular  body  (Fig.  31).  All  molecules  are 
polarizable.  Some  molecules  are  neutral. 

When  molecules  pass  from  the  equilibrated  state  to 
the  magnetic  state  and  return  to  the  equilibrated  state 
they  perform  True  Vibrations  (Fig.  30).  Such  vibra- 
tions are  accomplished  by  placing  a  piece  of  soft  iron 
in  an  electric  field  of  an  intermittent  current  where  it 
is  magnetized  and  demagnetized  perhaps  a  million  times 
a  minute.  True  vibration  therefore  possesses  two 
phases,  polarization  and  depolarization,  such  as  occurs 
in  crystallization  and  decrystallization,  magnetization 
and  demagnetization,  contraction  and  relaxation  of  mus- 
cle, and  rest  and  action  of  nerve. 

In  accomplishing  true  vibration  certain  quantitative 
and  qualitative  changes  occur  not  only  in  the  molecu- 
lar masses,  but  in  the  molecular  induction  fields.  A 
polarized  molecule  must  possess  symmetrical  hemi- 
spheres and  symmetrical  polar  fields,  hence  crystalliza- 
tion very  essentially  demands  water  of  crystallization, 
and  neuralization  and  muscularization  the  presence  of  a 
salt.  These  subsidiary  elements  may  be  designated 
associating  molecules  of  polarization.  Subsidiary  ele- 
ments when  dissociated  by  depolarization  of  the  prin- 
cipal molecule  may  become  radiant  matter.  This  ex- 
plains the  distinctive  properties  of  radium. 

Depolarization  of  the  molecular  body  gives  the  initi- 
atory impulse  to  radium  radiations;  and  depolariza- 
tion of  the  molecular  induction  field  gives  the  initiatory 
impulse  to  light  radiations.  Radium  and  luminous  mat- 
ter during  polarization  associate  their  respective  radi- 
ating matter. 


LIGHT.  203 

2.  The  Character  of  the  Medium  of  Travel.  Ether  is  a 
perfect  medium  for  the  transmission  of  force.  Its  im- 
ponderability, its  non-cohesiveness,  its  polarizability,  the 
complete  immolecular  neutralizability  of  its  forces,  to- 
gether with  its  perfect  equilibrium  as  to  the  quantitative 
relation  of  all  matter,  and  all  force,  to  all  space,  allow 
ether  to  be  a  perfect  medium,  transmitting  force  in- 
fluences without  loss  of  energy,  with  minimum  resis- 
tance and  maximum  velocity. 

Ether  transmits  gravitational  forces  and  is  there- 
fore subject  to  the  action  of  such  forces,  but  the  quan- 
titative relation  of  all  matter  and  all  force  to  all  space 
sequential  to  the  action  of  the  forces  of  diffusibility  re- 
quire space  to  be  occupied  to  the  limit  of  molecular 
conditions.  Hence  ether  is  imponderable.  On  enter- 
ing a  molecule  of  ether  a  force  meets  resistance  but  on 
leaving  the  molecule  the  traveling  force  will  be  hastened 
by  the  effort  of  the  ether  molecule  to  regain  its  equilib- 
rium. Hence  there  is  no  loss  of  radiant  energy. 

The  ether  molecule  is  self  neutralizable  because  its 
positive  and  negative  matter — atoms — are  of  equal 
quantity,  of  minimum  size,  and  neutralize  at  minimum 
distance  and  by  maximum  contact,  hence  according  to 
the  law  of  distance  its  matter  is  the  least  subject  to 
the  extrinsic  concentrating  forces. 

The  ether  is  non-cohesive  as  the  circumferential,  mat- 
ter of  its  molecule  is  negative  in  quality,  thus  accord- 
ing with  the  relative  arrangement  of  the  positive  and 
negative  matter  of  the  universe. 

Ether  transmits  the  corpuscle  of  light  intact  from  its 
emission  to  its  absorption,  exacting  no  toll  either  in 
material  or  energy,  preserving  its  exact  character,  and 
only  modifying  the  corpuscular  form  when  the  medium 
itself  is  dominated  by  forces  of  ponderable  matter. 


204  LIGHT. 

3.  The  Character  of  the  Organic  Cell  Which  Senses 
Light.  The  organic  cell  is  a  molecule  in  construction, 
with  a  central  body  surrounded  by  an  induction  field — 
intermolecular  space.  The  central  or  molecular  body  is 
the  nucleolus  wherein  resides  the  inductive  force  or 
energy  of  the  cell.*  The  nucleus  is  the  induction  field 
of  the  nucleolus.  The  cell-molecule  is  polarizable  and 
associates  additional  matter  essential  to  the  polarizing 
act.  Specific  quantities  of  matter  are  necessary  to 
polarization  in  order  that  the  cell-molecule  possess  uni- 
form hemispheres  and  uniform  polar  fields.  A  cell  may 
be  a  neutral  body  and  without  an  induction  field. 

There  is  no  well  defined  limit  to  the  size  of  molecules. 
Under  a  maximum  ponderable  pressure  a  mass  may  be 
conceived  as  being  without  molecular  division.  The  ele- 
ments engaged  in  building  up  molecules  of  the  type  of 
nucleoli  appear  to  be :  Specific  degrees  of  temperature 
(ether  pressure),  and  of  ponderable  pressure,  and  the 
presence  of  the  essential  chemical  elements.  Increased 
temperature  will  raise  the  ponderable  pressure  if  there 
be  resistance  to  the  escape  of  radiant  energy,  and  this 
resistance  is  a  factor  of  great  importance  in  construct- 
ing a  cell-molecule — cell  association  occurs  in  bone  mar- 
row, and  cell  dissociation  in  splenic  tissue.  There  is 
thus  indicated  a  function  of  the  sclerotic  coat  of  the 
eyeball  in  preserving  a  degree  of  pressure  essential  to 
the  maintenance  of  the  highly  potentiated  cell-mole- 
cule which  senses  light. 

The  physiological  appreciation  of  light  depends  on 
optic  cells,  during  the  polarizing  phase  of  a  true  vi- 

*In  a  monograph — The  Physiologic  Unit — the  facts 
relative  to  the  conception  of  the  nucleolus  being  a  mole- 
cule were  fully  considered. 


LIGHT.  205 

bration,  associating  ether  of  polarization.  The  physio- 
logic molecules  may  be  said  to  be  the  complements  of 
the  emitting  molecules,  and  can  only  vibrate  when  stimu- 
lated by  specific  quantities  of  unequilibrated  ether  as 
corpuscles.  The  absorption  of  specific  quantities  of 
ether  by  physiologic  molecules  during  the  polarizing 
phase  of  a  true  vibration  is  somewhat  analogous  to 
the  absorption  of  water  of  crystallization.  The  cor- 
puscle of  light  is  to  the  molecular  polar  field  what  wa- 
ter of  crystallization  is  to  the  crystallizing  molecular 
body.  The  absorption  of  water  or  of  a  salt  symmetrizes 
the  polarized  molecular  hemispheres ;  and  the  absorption 
of  corpuscles  of  ether  symmetrizes  the  molecular  polar 
fields;  thus  the  cell  molecules  of  the  optic  nerve  as- 
sume uniform  polar  fields  and  are  thus  capable  of  per- 
forming true  vibrations — functionally  appreciating  the 
incidence  of  light. 

4.  The  Character  of  the  Essential  Element  of  Light. 
It  is  corpuscular.  Newton  was  right.  Unfortunately  he 
had  to  deal  with  the  subject  exclusively  by  the  induc- 
tive method  of  reasoning  without  the  aid  of  deduction 
from  an  hypothesis  capable  of  scientific  generalization. 
Huygens  was  also  right  but  in  a  less  degree.  The 
corpuscle  is  propagated  in  wave  form,  but  the  element 
of  light  emitted  at  its  source,  the  element  absorbed 
and  sensed  by  the  eye,  and  the  element  engaged  in 
every  crisis  in  the  course  of  light  is  corpuscular  as  New- 
ton maintained. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  subsidiary  changes 
connected  with  the  true  vibration  of  a  molecule  is  the 
emission  of  ether  from  a  polar  field  during  depolariza- 
tion. If  an  equilibrated  or  depolarized  molecule  be  neu- 
tral, and  hence  without  an  induction  field,  it  is  clear 
that  it  will  absorb  ether  during  polarization  and  emit 


206  LIGHT. 

or  radiate  the  same  during  depolarization.  The  ether 
within  the  field  of  an  equilibrated  molecule  having  a 
free  force  is  not  emitted  from  the  molecular  system 
during  depolarization.  But  every  molecule  has  a  con- 
stituent base  which  is  neutral  and  polarizable ;  and  every 
molecule  when  vibrating  will  absorb  and  emit  ether  ac- 
cording to  the  inductive  force  of  the  poles  of  its  neutral 
base.  Obviously  every  molecule  emits  ether  at  both 
poles  when  depolarizing,  the  quantities  emitted  being 
equal  to  each  other,  and  their  sum  being  equal  to  the 
amount  absorbed.  A  molecule  with  a  free  force  may  be- 
come neutral  by  dissociating,  instead  of  associating  mat- 
ter during  polarization.  In  this  manner  cell-molecules 
multiply. 

In  specific  cases  the  emitted  ether  is  the  corpuscle  of 
light,  whose  initiatory  energy  is  the  energy  of  molecular 
depolarization,  and  whose  corpuscular  quantity  is  the 
essential  of  color.  The  frequency  of  vibration  and  the 
length  of  the  luminous  wave  (from  crest  to  crest)  are 
incidental,  and  conform  to  the  time  consumed  by  the 
initiatory  molecules  in  performing  a  true  vibration.  Al- 
though specific  frequency  (intensity)  and  specific  length 
may  be  modifying  factors  in  producing  certain  lumin- 
ous phenomena  they  are  not  the  essentials  in  differenti- 
ating color.  The  propagation  of  light  through  the  ether 
as  modified  by  ponderable  force,  its  reflection,  its  refrac- 
tion, its  absorption,  its  diffraction,  its  polarization,  and 
every  crisis  in  its  course,  depend  on  the  specific  quan- 
tity of  the  corpuscle.  In  its  propagation  through  un- 
modified ether  light  maintains  its  corpuscular  unit,  and 
is  without  crises  or  events. 

The  corpuscles  of  color  differentiate  in  size,  the  red 
being  the  largest,  and  decrease  in  quantity  occurs  as 
the  violet  is  approached.  Besides  the  primary  color  cor- 


LIGHT.  207 

puscles  there  are  undoubtedly  various  combinations  of 
specific  quantities  which  are  normal  excitants  to  the 
optic  cell  molecules.  Ultra  violet  and  ultra  red  cor- 
puscles do  not  agree  in  quantity  with  the  essential  as- 
sociating corpuscles  of  the  optic  nerve,  and  hence  are 
non  luminous. 

5.  The  Method  of  Travel.  Within  the  molecular  in- 
duction field  of  the  initiatory  molecule  the  corpuscular 
quantity  is  polarized,  and  hence  condensed.  When  set 
free  from  the  induction  field  by  depolarization  of  the 
primary  molecule  it  is  itself  depolarized,  and  expands  in 
seeking  equilibrium.  It  therefore  strikes  against  sur- 
rounding ether  and  a  quantity  equal  to  the  original 
corpuscle  is  condensed.  This  last  quantity  seeks  equilib- 
rium, strikes  against  a  successive  quantity,  and  so  the 
corpuscular  quantity  and  the  condensed  energy  is  prop- 
agated. The  initiatory  corpuscle  when  liberated  moves 
forward  and  hence  has  a  displacement  action.  Hence 
each  corpuscular  wave  is  compressed  from  behind  and 
expands  to  the  front,  thus  possessing  a  displacement 
movement.  Luminous  waves  are  pressural,  compres- 
sionaL  or  condensational.  They  are  longitudinal. 

The  longitudinal  direction  is  fundamental  to  all  wave 
motion.  The  transverse  is  a  modification  in  the  direc- 
tion of  least  resistance.  It  is  a  surface  wave.  It  starts 
out  as  a  longitudinal  wave  and*  would  continue  as  such 
if  surface  conditions  did  not  furnish  another  direction 
of  less  resistance.  The  ether  has  no  such  surface  con- 
ditions. 

The  luminous  wave  crest  is  comprised  of  corpuscles 
which  are  simply  condensed  quantities  of  ether.  What 
is  the  condition  of  the  ether  between  the  crests?  Can 
the  ether  be  rarified  below  its  normal  equilibrium  so  as 


208  LIGHT. 

to  create  a  negative  phase,  capable  of  neutralizing  its 
positive  phase? 

The  relation  of  ether  to  space  and  to  the  forces  of 
the  universe  allows  it  to  equilibrate  as  the  most  rarified 
form  of  matter.  In  the  construction  of  its  molecule  the 
negative  matter  is  circumferential  to  central  positive 
matter,  a  relationship  which  favors  diffusibility.  Ether 
equilibrates  under  the  minimum  pressure  of  the  uni- 
verse. 

Now  mark:  A  corpuscle  of  light  receives  its  pres- 
sural  blow  from  behind,  moves  forward  and  condenses, 
delivers  its  blow  in  front  and  rarifies.  In  the  meantime 
the  ether  behind  it  is  condensing.  Hence  our  particular 
corpuscle  is  rarifying  between  two  condensing  bodies — 
the  body  behind  is  approaching  it  but  the  body  in  front 
is  departing.  We  can  conceive  that  under  such  condi- 
tions the  corpuscular  quantity  may  rarify  by  its  in- 
trinsic forces  below  the  normal  equilibrium. 

According  to  the  accepted  theory  a  crest  and  a 
trough  will  explain  the  phenomenon  of  interference. 
However,  the  available  facts  connected  with  interfer- 
ence phenomena  are  not  altogether  satisfactory.  It 
might  be  well  that  the  temperature  of  the  bright  and 
dark  areas  in  experiments  be  ascertained.  If  the  crest 
and  trough  theory  be  correct  there  should  be  no  rise  of 
temperature  in  the  dark  areas. 

We  will  approach  the  subject  of  Interference  from 
another  direction.  Within  a  given  area  occupied  by 
ether,  say  between  the  Sun  and  Earth,  there  are  X 
number  of  luminous  waves.  If  this  ether  field  were  un- 
disturbed the  ether  would  be  in  Y  equilibrium.  One 
might  argue  that  when  occupied  by  X  condensations 
above  Y  equilibrium  there  must  be  X  rarifications  below 


LIGHT.  209 

Y  equilibrium.  But  further,  as  it  takes  light  8  minutes 
to  traverse  the  field  from  the  Sun  to  the  Earth,  and  as 
the  luminous  waves  have  forward  displacements  there 
have  actually  poured  into  the  field  X  number  of  cor- 
puscles in  8  minutes,  before  any  depart  from  the  field 
on  the  opposite  side.  The  field  is  therefore  packed  to 
the  extent  of  X  corpuscles,  and  there  are  X  conden- 
sations without  any  rarifications  below  the  Y  equilib- 
rium. Then  we  will  advance  this  consideration  as  an 
interference  sequence:  When  two  corpuscles  conjointly 
strike  the  optic  cell  molecule,  so  as  not  to  be  physiologic- 
ally separable,  they  block  the  polarizing  function  of  the 
molecule  and  darkness  results,  just  as  if  they  were  an 
ultra  red  corpuscle.  If  the  two  corpuscles  vary  in  pe- 
riod or  orientation  one  may  act  pysiologically  and  the 
other  be  spent  as  heat.  The  first  condition  is  interfer- 
ence, the  second  non-interference.  Thus  accordingly  in- 
terference is  physiological.  Whether  interference  is 
physical  or  physiological  should  be  proved  by  experi- 
mentation. 

A  study  of  molecular  fields  will  show  that  their  ether 
must  have  different  degrees  of  polarization  and  hence 
different  degrees  of  density,  according  to  the  potential- 
ity of  the  free  force  of  the  molecule.  We  will  postu- 
late thus:  Each  color  corpuscle  entering  a  molecular 
field  must  displace  ether  of  a  density  equal  to  or  less 
than  its  own.  The  color  corpuscle  will  be  refracted 
according  to  the  curve  of  the  path  of  its  particular 
density. 

The  color  corpuscles  from  red  to  violet  undoubtedly 
present  a  gradual  uninterrupted  decrease  of  density. 
The  molecular  induction  field  also  presents  a  gradual  un- 
interrupted decrease  of  density  from  the  surface  of  the 
molecule  outwards.  The  beginning  and  the  end  of  the 
molecular  fields  may  possess  any  degree  of  density  from 


210  LIGHT. 

the  greatest  of  which  ether  is  capable  to  extreme  tenu- 
ity. Thus  the  selective  action  of  certain  media  is  ex- 
plained. 

Molecules  of  rarified  media,  such  as  air,  possess  large 
and  tenuous  fields  and  transmit  white  light  without  dis- 
persion. Thus  corpuscles  are  transmitted  by  fields  of 
a  density  equal  to  or  less  than  their  own,  but  are 
blocked  by  a  field  of  a  greater  density.  Each  corpuscle 
is  whirled  round  a  molecular  body  by  displacement  as 
a  cometary  particle  is  whirled  round  the  Sun  by  con- 
vection. Each  cometary  physical  unit  or  each  light  cor- 
puscle moves  in  a  straight  path  until  reaching  its  par- 
ticular density  curve  which  it  follows.  Hence  molecu- 
lar fields  transmit  or  reflect  light  according  to  the 
character  of  their  density  lines. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  curvatures  and  the  length  of 
the  lines  of  density  are  greater  the  more  distant  they 
are  from  the  molecular  polar  surface.  The  curvature 
of  the  density  lines  of  molecular  fields  as  media  of 
light  accounts  for  refraction  phenomena.  The  differen- 
tial curvatures  of  the  color  lines  of  the  molecular  polar 
field  or  the  molecular  field  distorted  by  pressure,  ac- 
count for  dispersion. 

A  molecule  by  its  intrinsic  forces  assumes  the  spheri- 
cal form.  The  molecular  induction  field  is  also  spherical 
as  to  its  density  lines.  Pressure  may  modify  both  mole- 
cule and  field.  When  polarized  the  molecule  will  still 
be  spherical  and  the  polar  fields  will  be  hemispherical!. 
It  will  thus  be  seen  that  a  corpuscle  emerging  from  a 
molecular  field  will  not  be  simply  a  round  bunch 
of  ether  but  will  be  elongated  and  perhaps  of  semilunar 
form.  The  elongation  is  transverse  to  the  direction  of 
propagation.  But,  there  is  no  similarity  in  the  orienta- 
tion of  the  transverse  direction.  When  the  corpuscles 
are  similarly  orientated  they  are  said  to  be  polarized. 


HEAT.  211 

Rectilinear  propagation  follows  when  the  medium  is 
imponderable  and  non-cohesive,  the  slight  diffraction  re- 
sulting from  an  elastic  corpuscle  and  manifesting  ac- 
cording to  the  corpuscular  quantity.  Ether  is  the  only 
luminiferous  medium  but  it  may  be  traversed  by  density 
lines  caused  by  the  transmission  of  force  from  ponder- 
able matter  which  modify  and  render  it  a  selective 
medium. 

Light  is  limited  to  certain  color  corpuscular  quanti- 
ties which  are  physiologically  distinguishable.  Pulsa- 
tions exist  in  the  ether  which  have  all  the  qualifica- 
tions of  light  excepting  the  distinguishable  corpuscular 
quantities.  These  are  demonstrable  by  instrumentation, 
and  are  dark  corpuscular  radiations.  Light  has  only 
physiological  delimitations.  The  thermic  value  of  Light 
is  directly  proportional  to  the  quantities  of  its  cor- 
puscles. Pressural  waves  or  pulsations  and  non-pulsat- 
ing streams  of  ether  beyond  the  boundaries  of  light  are 
physiologically  appreciated  as  heat.  Ether  unequili- 
brated  is  heat,  which,  when  specifically  corpusculated, 
becomes  light.  Light  is  qualitative  and  quantitative; 
heat  is  simply  quantitative. 

It  is  apparent  that  any  reaction  of  a  chemical  char- 
acter between  molecules  will  modify  the  molecular  in- 
duction fields,  thus  setting  free  masses  of  ether  which 
radiate  as  heat  (Fig.  31).  It  is  also  possible  that  in 
some  cases  these  masses  may  conform  in  quantity  to 
light  corpuscles.  Again  unequilibrated  ether  radiating 
as  heat  may  encounter  molecules  capable  of  true  vibra- 
tions, and  thus  the  heat  will  be  converted  into  light,  as 
witness  sodium  placed  in  a  flame.  The  sodium  molecules 
or  their  ions,  polarize,  absorb  ether  within  their  induc- 
tion fields,  depolarize  and  radiate  their  distinctive  color 
corpuscles. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

ADDENDA. 
Fundamental  Hypotheses  and  Immediate  Deductions. 

A  RESTATEMENT. 

1.  The  matter  of  the  universe  is  composed  of  two  ulti- 
mate units,  cosmically  of  equal  quantity,  and  qualified  as 
follows : 

(a)  The  positive,  condensative,  ponderable,  center 
seeking,  rest  inducing,  anode  unit. 

(b)  The  negative,   diffusive,   imponderable,  center 
fleeing,  motion  inducing,  cathode  unit. 
Impenetrability  is  a  property  of  both  units. 

2.  A  positive  unit  and  a  negative  unit  mutually  neu- 
tralising at  minimum  distance  and  by  maximum  contact 
constitute  a  molecule,  the  basic  element  of  the  simplest 
form  of  matter  termed  the  Ether. 

3.  One  negative  unit  intimately  united  with  two  pos- 
itive units  constitute  an  indivisible  entity  which  is  the 
binding  force  and  basic  element  of  all  complex,  ponder- 
able or  sensible  matter,  and  which  when  molecularly  free, 
as  in  electrified  partial  vacua,  electrolytically  seeks  the 
cathode,  and  hence  has  been  designated  the  "  cathode 
particle,"  although  predominantly  anode  in  character.* 

4.  When  under  the  strain  of  extrinsic  force  ether 
molecules  undergo  chemic  analysis  their  atomic  or  ulti- 
mate units  superficially  associate  with  the  complex  form 
of  matter,  and  manifest  as  electricity.     In  electrified 
partial  vacua  the  cathode  particle  is  an  electric  cathode 

The  following  terms  introduced  by  Farraday  have  confusing 


214  PRIMARY  LAWS. 

unit  carrier,  and  as  such  seeks  the  anode,  the  point  of 
neutralization;  but  also  manifests  an  independent  prop- 
erty of  divisibility.  The  positive  cathode  particle  is 
thus  dominated  by  the  negative  electric  charge.  Thus 
by  the  chemic  dissociation  of  ether  the  ultimate  units 
pass  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  potency  of  matter. 

LAWS  OP  PRIMARY  FORCES. 

As  deductions  from  the  foregoing  hypotheses,  and  as 
an  interpretation  of  sequential  facts,  the  following  laws 
of  the  primary  forces  of  matter  are  formulated: 

1.  Bach  particle  of  positive  matter  attracts  every 
other  particle  of  positive  matter,  within  its  field  of  neu- 
tralization, with  an  intensity  inversely  proportional  as 
the  square  of  the  distance. 

2.  Each  particle  of  negative  matter  repels  every  other 
particle  of  negative  matter,  within  its  field  of  neutraliza- 
tion,  with  an  intensity  inversely  proportional  as  the 
square  of  the  distance.    The  neutralization  field  may  be 
the  area  of  a  molecule  or  that  of  a  solar  system. 

3.  Each  particle  of  positive  matter  and  each  particle 
of  negative  matter  strain  to  mutually  neutralize  by  max- 
imum contact  and  at  minimum  distance.     By  this  law 
ponderable  matter  diffuses  until  the  "  cathode  particle " 
is  reached. 


significance: 

ANODE,  the  positive  pole  or  its  ultimate  electric  constitu- 
ents. 

ANION,  anode  particle,  the  negative  element  electrolytically 
evolved  at  the  anode. 

CATHODE,  the  negative  pole,  or  its  ultimate  electric  con- 
stituents. 

CATION,  cathode  particle,  the  positive  element  electrolyti- 
cally evolved  at  the  cathode. 

ANIONIZE,  to   render  more  negative. 

CATIONIZE,  to  render  more  positive. 


DEDUCTIONS.  215 

FURTHER  DEDUCTIONS. 

As  two  of  the  three  laws  are  effectively  diffusive,  it 
follows  that  all  space  is  filled  by  matter,  consequently 
there  is  a  certain  relation  of  all  matter  and  all  force  to 
all  space;  and  dependently  upon  such  relation  matter 
assumes  mass  formations.  Masses  are  evidences  that  all 
space  is  occupied  by  matter,  and  the  quantitative  rela- 
tion of  complex  matter  to  ether  is  determined  by  the 
relation  of  matter  to  space;  which  also  determines  the 
quantitative  content  of  the  ultimate  unit. 

The  solar  system  is  a  cosmic  unit  constituted  of  equal 
quantities  of  positive  and  negative  matter,  which,  ac- 
cording to  their  properties,  possess  a  certain  amount  of 
unequilibrated  force,  which  is  constantly  gaining  equil- 
ibrium by  causing  an  equal  unequilibrium.  Hence  a 
perpetuity  of  cycles  within  the  system. 

Solar  systems  occupy  relative  positions  induced  by 
the  relation  of  all  matter  and  all  force  to  all  space,  and 
the  spatial  relation  is  upheld  by  the  repulsive  properties 
of  circumferential  negative  matter.  Interstellar  repul- 
sion induces  a  movement  among  the  stars,  which,  in  the 
absence  of  a  resisting  force,  is  eternally  continuous 
throughout  an  infinite  space.  The  motion  of  each  star 
is  counteracted  by  the  motions  of  other  stars,  so  that 
the  universal  equilibrium  is  maintained. 

In  electrified  partial  vacua  the  " anode  particle"  is  an 
aggregation  of  negative  matter  intrinsically  bound  by 
cathode  particles,  and  extrinsically  herded  by  the  induc- 
tion fields  of  other  cathode  particles.  In  addition  gravi- 
tational (positive)  lines  of  force  pervade  partial  vacua 
with  binding  effects. 

The  analogue  of  the  cathode  particle  consists  of  two 
negative  units  and  one  positive  unit,  and  this  as  an 


216  MATTER,  SPACE  AND  TIME. 

entity  undoubtedly  exists  at  the  extreme  limits  of  the 
solar  system,  where  positive  radiations  terminate,  and 
which  neutralize  and  bind  the  dissolving  constituents  of 
this  particle. 

No  motion  takes  place  of  the  molecule,  atom  or  sub- 
atom  but  is  demonstrable  in  the  mass.  The  constituents 
of  a  molecule  are  relatively  at  rest,  in  equilibrium,  ex- 
cept when  disturbed  by  external  force,  or  conditions. 
The  vibrations  of  molecules  are  limited  to  two  move- 
ments: 1.  A  polarizing  and  depolarizing  movement. 
2.  A  condensing  and  rarifying  movement. 

Heat  is  a  manifestation  of  the  diffusive  qualities  of 
complex  matter  in  the  presence  of  unequilibrated  ether. 
The  basic  element  of  light  is  a  corpuscle  of  ether  which 
is  propagated  in  wave  form — the  theories  of  Newton  and 
Huygens  combined. 


MATTER,    SPACE   AND   TIME,    ASTRAL,    MOTION. 

Matter  being  diffusive  it  must  be  coextensive  with 
space,  and  as  space  is  infinite  hence  matter  must  also  be 
infinite.  The  relation  of  all  matter  and  all  force  to  all 
space  permits  a  specific  minimum  pressure  in  the  ether, 
the  state  of  which  is  the  ultimate  of  diffusibility.  Based 
upon  the  minimum  pressure  under  the  relation  of  matter 
to  space,  and  upon  the  distinctive  properties  of  its  posi- 
tive variety,  matter  assumes  the  solid,  liquid,  and  gas- 
eous forms.  Thus  these  forms  are  conclusive  evidences 
that  all  space  is  occupied  consistently  with  a  pressure 
which  allows  the  ether  to  exercise  its  properties.  The 
only  empty  spaces  in  the  universe  are  the  intermolecular 
spaces  of  ether  (Fig.  1) .  Clearly,  the  law  of  gravitation, 
being  a  minority  law,  is  effectively  dependent  upon  mat- 


SOLAR  SYSTEMS.  217 

ter  occupying  all  space  under  a  specific  degree  of  mini- 
mum pressure. 

Time  is  eternal,  and  as  matter  could  not  have  been 
formed  from  nothing,  it  must  be  co-existent  with  eter- 
nity. Marked  time  indicates  the  evolutionary  phases,  or 
their  details,  of  cycles  induced  by  the  properties  of  mat- 
ter, the  cycles  being  eternal  in  their  repetition.  Matter 
and  its  fundamental  properties,  and  various  sequential 
manifestations,  are  co-existent  with  time  and  space. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  positive  and  negative 
matter  tend  to  a  universally  relative  placement — the 
positive  matter  central  and  the  negative  matter  circum- 
ferential. Thus  distinct  bodies  of  positive  matter  have 
negative  atmospheres;  and  thus  the  ether  molecule  and 
the  solar  system  are  constructed  with  circumferences  of 
negative  matter.  Within  our  system  positive  matter  by 
its  concentrativeness,  in  general,  is  advantageously  placed 
to  be  acted  upon  by  internal  gravitational  forces;  and 
negative  matter,  coordinately,  is  advantageously  placed 
to  be  acted  upon  by  extraneous  or  interstellar  forces. 
Hence  any  reaction  that  could  occur  between  the  solar 
system,  in  its  present  evolutionary  development,  and  an 
approaching  star  would  be  one  of  repulsion. 

The  forces  of  each  solar  system  are  completely  and 
intrinsically  neutralized,  but  they  vary  in  the  manner 
of  neutralizing  as  the  system  traverses  the  evolutionary 
phases  of  its  eternal  cycles.  When  a  solar  system  is  in 
its  utmost  nebulous  condition  its  constituent  elements  are 
intimately  neutralized,  and  there  is  a  minimum  of  cen- 
tral positive  solidity,  and  hence  a  minimum  of  negative 
matter  in  its  circumferential  or  common  atmosphere. 
When  central  solidity  of  positive  matter  has  reached  its 
maximum,  the  circumferential  negative  matter  must  also 
attain  a  maximum  degree.  Our  solar  system  is  traveling 


218  ASTRAL  MOTION. 

towards  the  latter  phase  of  evolution,  and  a  strong  re- 
pulsive force  would  meet  any  star  approaching  us.  On 
the  other  hand  the  repulsive  reactions  between  nebulae 
are  slight,  and  mutual  approachment  may  eventuate. 

We  will  suppose  that  two  nebulae  by  intrinsic  diffusi- 
bility  are  in  proximity.  As  evolution  occurs  they  will 
exercise  a  mutual  repulsion  which  will  impart  to  each  a 
movement  to  which  no  resistance  is  offered  in  interstellar 
space.  According  to  the  Newtonian  law  these  bodies  will 
move  forever.  Each  will  move  in  a  straight  line  until  it 
approaches  another  system,  similar  to  our  own,  when  the 
negative  lines  of  force  will  be  bent  (Fig.  5)  and  the  con- 
tact will  impart  a  momentum  to  each  body  that  will  send 
it  spinning  through  space.  The  motion  of  stars  in  space 
thus  depends  on  repulsion  between  negatives;  and  the 
impenetrability  of  like  fields.  Notwithstanding  the  mo- 
tion the  relative  position  of  stars  is  governed  by  the  re- 
lation of  all  matter  and  all  force  to  all  space,  and  this 
fact  in  itself  prevents  stars  from  colliding.  A  slight 
mixing  of  nebulae  does  no  harm. 

The  distance  of  Neptune  from  the  Sun  is  given  as 
2,790,000,000  miles.  Beyond  Neptune  the  common  at- 
mosphere of  the  system,  owing  to  its  extreme  diffusion, 
probably  extends  to  over  5,000,000,000  miles  from  the 
sun,  and  this  indicates  the  longest  diameter  of  the  sys- 
tem— 10,000,000,000  miles.  Alpha  Centauri,  the  nearest 
star  to  the  solar  system,  is  stated  to  be  25,000,000,000,000 
miles  distant,  which  is  probably  2500  times  greater  than 
the  longest  diameter  of  our  system.  If  the  longest  dia- 
meter of  the  solar  system  is  represented  by  one  inch, 
the  interstellar  space  referred  to  may  be  estimated  at 
about  200  feet.  Sirius,  the  next  star  to  Alpha  Centauri, 
has  an  estimated  distance  of  twice  that  of  the  latter. 
Nature  is  evidently  abundantly  liberal,  even  prodigal  as 
regards  space,  and  this  is  a  provision  of  safety  against 
collision. 


LAW  OF  GRAVITATION.  219 


THE  LAW  OF  GRAVITATION. 

If  the  formula  of  the  law  of  gravitation  as  at  present 
accepted  were  correct  the  matter  of  the  universe  would 
be  collected  into  one  mass,  as  however  great  the  distance 
between  stars  they  have  had  an  infinite  time  for  mutual 
approachment.  There  would  be  no  motion,  no  momen- 
tum, except  in  the  direction  of  approachment. 

Nature  does  not  make  such  mistakes  as  to  place  itself 
under  such  a  law  as  that  of  gravitation  as  at  present 
promulgated.  Nebulae  may  mutually  approach  by  the 
forces  of  diffusibility,  or  their  outward  boundaries  may 
even  coalesce,  but  no  astral  body  of  matter  can  strike  a 
system  such  as  ours  in  its  present  phase  of  evolvement. 
The  isolation  of  the  solar  system  is  complete  and  is  main- 
tained by :  First,  the  equilibrium  induced  by  the  relation 
of  all  matter  and  all  force  to  all  space.  Second,  the  rela- 
tion of  ponderable  bodies  to  the  vast  bounds  of  ether 
matter.  Third,  the  universally  relative  placement  of  pos- 
itive and  negative  matter.  Fourth,  the  absolute  restric- 
tion of  gravitational  force  to  the  internal  reactions  of  the 
system.  Fifth,  the  impenetrability  of  like  induction 
fields.  (Figs.  3,  4,  and  5.) 


THE  GREAT  CYCLE. 

In  the  extreme  nebulous  state  electric  currents  are 
absent,  and  heat  ceases  to  radiate  throughout  the  system 
from  a  central  body  (page  54,  Fig.  7).  The  great  cycle, 
metaphorically  speaking,  has  reached  aphelion.  The 
main  features  in  the  critical  change  are  the  maintenance 
of  positive  concentrability,  and  the  cessation  of  thermo 


220  GREAT  CYCLE. 

electric,  solar  planetary,  cycles  of  energy.  The  great 
cycle  may  be  divided  into  two  phases.  The  first  is  one 
of  concentration,  simultaneously  starting  from  numerous 
independent  centers  in  the  nebula,  and  supremely  con- 
tinuing until  thermo  electric  energy  is  re-established. 
During  this  period  heat  emanates  from  the  numerous 
contracting  centers,  and  is  absorbed  by  the  more  diffu- 
sive elements. 

The  second  phase  has  complex  features.  The  sun  re- 
gains dominance  and  ultimately  sends  a  blanket  of  con- 
centrating force  over  the  whole  system.  Coincidentally 
thermo  electric  energy  pervades  the  system,  streams  of 
electrified  ions  emanate  from  the  poles  of  planets  and 
enter  the  poles  of  the  sun,  thus  ionizing  his  mass,  and 
increasing  his  volume,  until  he  embraces  the  planetary 
system.  In  the  meantime  planets  contract  in  volume  by 
loss  of  ions,  become  more  positive  by  solar  gravitational 
force  squeezing  out  negative  matter,  their  polar  poten- 
tials decrease,  and  their  orbits  contract  until  they  are 
engulfed  by  the  sun.  As  the  solar  forces  increase  new 
planetary  bodies  are  condensed,  as  beyond  Neptune,  and 
they  in  turn  are  absorbed  by  the  sun.  Then  the  whole 
common  atmosphere  forms  the  circumference  of  the 
solar  body.  It  is  thus  that  nebulosity  is  resumed,  and 
one  turn  of  the  great  cycle  is  accomplished. 

It  must  be  clearly  comprehended  that  according  to 
two  of  its  three  fundamental  laws  matter  is  diffusive, 
and  that  the  strain  to  neutralize  by  maximum  contact 
becomes  effective,  through  heat  and  electric  energies,  in 
the  central  body.  Yet  the  condensing  or  gravitational 
forces  within  the  solar  body  are  still  active  and  it  is  by 
these  forces  that  heat  radiates  from  the  sun.  A  sun  spot 
illustrates  the  activities  of  solar  energies.  The  appear- 
ance of  a  sun  spot  is  caused  by  unequilibrated  ether  as 


GREAT  CYCLE.  221 

heat,  which  is  a  result  of  energy  absorbed  at  the  solar 
poles;  the  disappearance  of  a  sun  spot  is  caused  by  the 
contracting  properties  of  positive  matter.  The  sun  ab- 
sorbs more  ionic  and  electric  energy  at  his  poles  than 
he  emits  in  the  form  of  heat,  and  the  retained  energy 
adds  to  his  diffusibility. 

The  volume  of  all  the  planets  is  small  in  comparison 
to  that  of  the  sun,  but  it  must  be  conceived  that  they 
were  condensed  from  that  part  of  the  nebula  occupying 
what  may  be  called  the  planetary  space,  and  when  ab- 
sorbed by  the  sun  they  will  do  nothing  more  or  less  than 
occupy  the  same  relative  space.  In  the  intimately  neu- 
tralized state  of  extreme  nebulization  the  potential  force 
of  the  system  resides  in  the  concentrativeness  of  positive 
matter;  in  extreme  consolidation  of  positive  matter  and 
coordinately  extreme  diffusion  of  negative  matter  the 
potential  force  resides  in  the  neutralization  strain  of 
both  varieties ;  and  so  the  pendulum  eternally  swings  be- 
tween the  differentiated  foci  of  the  great  cycle. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
Mars. 

Some  astronomical  observations  favor  the  conclusion 
that  there  is  no  water  in  the  atmosphere  of  Mars.  From 
the  position  of  this  planet  in  the  solar  system,  and  from 
the  evolutionary  stage  of  its  development  the  conviction 
follows  that  the  polar  caps  of  the  planet  are  evidences 
of  snow  and  ice.  Observers  have  not  taken  into  account 
the  action  of  solar  gravitational  lines  of  force  on  water, 
which  is  relatively  driven  towards  the  pole  distant  from 
the  sun.  It  is  evident  that  the  solar  action  on  the  water 
of  Mars  will  clear  the  atmosphere  on  his  surface  approx- 
imating the  observer.  The  fact  of  mountains  being  ab- 
sent is  favorable  to  this  solar  action  on  water.  The 
mountains  on  the  earth  obviate  this  action  of  the  sun's 
forces  on  the  water  of  the  terrestial  surface.  Notwith- 
standing an  observer,  situated  on  Mars  and  taking  a 
look  through  the  air  covering  some  of  our  deserts,  might 
be  mistaken  as  regards  the  presence  of  water  on  this 
planet.  Furthermore  in  the  atmosphere  of  Mars  water 
may  not  exist  as  cloud,  but  as  ions,  or  atoms  in  molec- 
ular form. 

Mars  has  two  satellites.  Phobos,  the  inner  one,  re- 
volves in  its  orbit  in  7  hours  and  30  minutes ;  and  Deimos, 
the  outer  one,  has  an  orbital  period  of  30  hours  and  39 
minutes.  Mars  takes  24  2-3  hours  to  complete  his  axial 
rotation.  A  stone  on  the  surface  of  this  planet  takes 
about  four  times  longer  to  rotate  around  its  center  of 
gravitation  than  Phobos  does.  The  explanation  of  this 
peculiarity  is  as  follows:  Mars  rotates  on  his  axis  as  a 
ball  on  a  floor,  the  floor  being  the  solar  gravitational 
lines  of  force,  which,  acting  on  the  proximate  surface  of 


THE  MOON.  223 

the  planet,  exercise  a  retarding  influence  identical  to 
what  the  floor  exercises  on  a  rolling  ball.  The  satellites 
rotate  in  their  orbits  in  obedience  to  the  electric  currents 
of  Mars. 


THE   MOON  AND   ITS   ATMOSPHERE. 

Every  distinct  body  of  matter  in  the  solar  system  has 
an  atmosphere.  The  comet's  atmosphere  is  its  tail.  The 
earth  had  a  tail  once,  and  it  got  rolled  round  the  terres- 
tial  body  when  axial  rotary  motion  was  assumed.  The 
atmosphere  of  the  sun  is  its  photosphere  or  chromo- 
sphere, and  its  south  pole  may  have  a  tail.  Mars  and 
outside  planets  at  their  south  poles  may  have  remnants 
of  tails.  The  earth's  tail  is  a  mountain  ten  thousand 
feet  high.  Bodies  without  axial  rotary  motion  have  their 
atmosphere  driven  by  the  lines  of  force  from  their  prin- 
cipals to  their  distal  sides.  Thus  the  atmospheres  of 
comets  are  always  on  the  sides  of  the  cometary  bodies 
distant  from  the  sun.  The  moon  has  no  axial  rotation  as 
regards  its  principal,  the  earth,  hence  its  atmosphere  is 
driven  to  the  distal  side. 

Do  the  conditions  admit  of  the  moon's  atmosphere 
being  demonstrated?  Yes,  decidedly.  In  a  total  eclipse 
of  the  sun  two  repelling  forces  from  exactly  opposite 
directions  act  on  the  atmosphere  of  the  moon — the  lines 
of  force  of  the  sun  and  those  of  the  earth.  Both  forces 
attract  the  body  of  the  moon,  but  relatively  repel  its 
atmosphere.  The  result  of  the  actions  of  the  two  forces 
is  a  depression  of  the  higher  atmosphere  of  the  moon  and 
a  uniform  bulging  of  its  middle  and  lower  atmosphere. 
The  grand  result  of  this  atmospheric  bulging  during  a 
total  eclipse  of  the  sun  is  the  refraction  of  the  sun's 
rays  which  in  straight  lines  would  be  absolutely  ob- 


224  PLANET  MERCURY. 

scured.  Hence  the  magnificent  sight,  The  Corona.  The 
spectrum  of  the  corona  is  that  of  incandescent  gas 
which  of  course  belongs  to  the  sun.  The  light  is  refracted 
without  essential  change.  However,  the  analysis  of  coro- 
nal light  points  to  an  unknown  substance  referred  to  as 
coronium.  Every  molecular  element  is  in  equilibrium 
according  to  surrounding  ponderable  pressure,  tempera- 
ture, etc.,  and  it  is  conceivable  that  some  of  the  numerous 
unknown  elements  between  the  cathode  particle  and  the 
hydrogen  atom  may  exist  in  the  moon's  atmosphere.  This 
element  may  emit  light  under  the  influence  of  the  sun's 
rays.  From  a  study  of  the  conditions  in  Mars,  the  author 
concludes  that  both  water  and  air  exist  on  the  moon's 
opposite  side. 

During  crescent  moon  the  sun's  forces  bend  the  at- 
mosphere of  the  moon  but  in  this  case  the  sun's  forces 
act  on  the  upper  atmosphere  which  no  doubt  is  rare  and 
incapable  of  detection.  During  full  moon  the  actions  of 
the  sun 's  forces  are  in  the  same  direction  as  those  of  the 
earth. 


THE   PLANET   MERCURY. 

Of  all  the  planets,  asteroids  excepted,  Mercury  has  the 
least  mass,  the  smallest  diameter,  the  most  eccentric 
orbit,  the  greatest  orbital  inclination  to  the  eclyptic,  the 
greatest  orbital  velocity,  and  the  greatest  difference  be- 
tween perihelion  and  aphelion  velocity. 

It  may  be  pointed  out  that  the  eclyptic  is  unstable  as 
a  standard  measure;  whereas  the  plane  of  the  solar 
equator  is  stable  relatively  to  the  solar  system,  and  in  a 
degree  relatively  to  the  equatorial  planes  of  all  systems, 
and  thus  the  inclination  of  planetary  orbits  should  be 
given  as  related  thereto. 


MERCURY.  225 

In  explanation  of  the  facts  we  will  suppose  that  Mer- 
cury, when  evolving  from  the  nebulous  condition,  was 
condensed  within  the  equatorial  plane  of  the  sun.  When 
the  sun's  electric  currents  were  evolved  the  planet  as- 
sumed the  spiral  form,  with  its  head  towards  the  north 
pole  of  the  sun.  Following  this  it  commenced  to  roll 
on  its  axis,  and  its  tail  took  on  an  atmospheric  form. 
The  conditions  ensuing  are :  A  central  electrolytic  body 
with  electric  currents  in  constant  and  definable  direc- 
tions; and  a  planetary  elctrolyte,  with  electric  currents 
in  opposite  directions  to  those  of  the  central  body.  The 
planetary  revolution  conforms  to  the  general  law  of 
electric  whirl,  the  formula  of  which  has  already  been 
given  (page  47). 

Now  when  the  planet  is  north  of  the  plane  of  the  sun 's 
equator,  there  is  intense  attraction  owing  to  the  propin- 
quity of  the  two  positive  bodies,  and  this  is  intensified  by 
the  presentation  of  the  north  poles.  Thus  the  near  ap- 
proachment  of  planet  and  sun  is  accounted  for  at  peri- 
helion. When  the  planet  is  south  of  the  solar  equatorial 
plane  there  is  an  intense  reaction  of  repulsion  which 
sends  it  to  a  relatively  greater  distance  from  its  revolu- 
tionary center,  as  at  aphelion. 

These  results  ensue  from  the  combined  causes  of  the 
static  forces  of  the  two  bodies,  manifesting  as  attraction 
and  repulsion  of  strictly  lineal  character,  and  of  their 
electric  currents  manifesting  in  the  orbital  revolution  of 
the  smaller  body.  The  sequential  order  of  the  conditions 
as  affecting  Mercury  are :  Propinquity,  great  and  differ- 
ential orbital  velocity,  eccentricity  of  orbit,  and  inclina- 
tion of  his  orbital  plane  to  the  solar  equatorial' plane. 
When  we  study  the  causes  of  the  lineal  and  circulatory 
reactions  between  the  sun  and  Mecury  it  is  apparent 
that  they  are  constantly  undergoing  modifications,  which 


226  SUN  AND  MERCURY. 

are  accompanied  by  changes  in  the  relations  of  the  two 
bodies. 

The  equilibrium  of  Mercury,  as  that  of  all  other  bodies, 
is  maintained  by  the  relation  of  all  matter  to  all  space, 
with  modifications  produced  by  local  causes.  The  reac- 
tions between  the  sun  and  Mercury  may  be  classified  as 
follows : 

Attraction  between  two  positive  bodies,  acting  through- 
out the  orbit. 

Attraction  between  poles  of  opposite  potential,  when 
presenting. 

Repulsion  between  negative  poles,  when  presenting. 

Repulsion  resulting  from  impenetrability  of  like  in- 
duction fields,  when  presenting. 

Repulsion  between  electric  currents  of  opposite  direc- 
tion, acting  throughout  the  orbit. 

Momentum  acquired  by  the  body  in  an  electric  whirl 
and  which  is  favorable  to  repulsion  throughout  the 
orbit. 

Solar  attraction  of  Mercury  is  increasing  in  that  part 
of  his  orbit  from  aphelion  to  the  equinox  (Fig.  14)  and 
in  a  less  degree  beyond,  but  is  opposed  as  perihelion  is 
approached  by  impenetrability  of  like  induction  fields. 
Thus  flattening  of  this  part  of  his  orbit  is  produced. 
Attraction  is  opposed  by  momentum. 

The  repulsive  forces  acting  on  Mercury  in  the  orbital 
portion  leading  to  aphelion  hold  their  own  with  the 
exception  of  the  reaction  between  the  two  negative  or 
south  poles.  The  decrease  of  this  reaction  flattens  the 
orbit  at  the  equinox  following  the  perihelion.  Differen- 
tial flattening  of  the  orbit  at  the  equinoxial  points  will 
cause  twisting  of  the  longest  diameter. 


METEORS.  227 

The  mass  of  Mercury  increases  in  positive  character 
with  an  evident  decrease  in  his  polarities.  Mercury  in 
his  dotage  approaches  cometary  conditions.  The  loss  in 
rotary  motion  and  loss  of  his  negative  atmosphere  are 
indications  of  these  changes. 

There  is  an  unsolved  mathematical  problem  relative 
to  the  orbit  of  this  planet.  It  is  evident  that  mathe- 
matics to  be  valuable  in  the  solution  of  problems  must 
be  based  on  undoubted  factors,  and  these  must  undoubt- 
edly cover  the  whole  field.  It  is  futile  for  even  great 
mathematicians  to  attempt  to  solve  problems  such  as 
those  of  the  orbit  of  Mercury,  on  the  lone  factor  of  gravi- 
tation. It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  even  when  the  mathe- 
matical formula  is  correct  the  principles  assumed  may 
be  incorrect. 

Gravitational  force  between  two  predominantly  posi- 
tive bodies,  in  electrolytic  form,  one  of  which  is  in 
orbital  revolution,  may  be  likened  to  an  elastic  band, 
which  contracts  when  only  opposed  by  momentum,  and 
the  influence  of  electric  currents  of  opposite  directions; 
but  stretches  when  additionally  opposed  by  repulsion 
between  negative  poles,  and  impenetrability  of  like  in- 
duction fields. 


METEORS. 

Meteors  are  small  comets,  and  what  has  been  said  in 
this  work  concerning  the  latter  (page  128)  applies  to 
the  former,  with  a  few  exceptions  which  we  will  note. 
Meteors  are  more  positive  than  comets  and  hence  get 
entangled  with  the  solar  and  planetary  induction  fields. 
Having  lost  their  predominating  negative  matter  they 
partake  of  the  character  of  metallic  substances. 


228  METEORS. 

It  has  been  calculated  by  See  that  the  quantity  of 
meteoric  matter  falling  into  the  sun  is  sufficient  to  cover 
the  solar  surface  to  the  depth  of  two  meters  in  100  years, 
if  the  matter  were  of  the  average  density  of  the  earth, 
and  which  would  equal  the  total  mass  of  our  moon. 
Our  deductions  agree  in  principle  with  this  statement. 
The  sun  grows  (page  54). 

It  has  also  been  stated  that  hot  weather,  immediately 
caused  by  increased  solar  radiation,  is  ultimately  caused 
by  meteors  falling  into  the  sun.  This  statement  will 
not  stand  critical  investigation.  Meteoric  matter  pierc- 
ing our  atmosphere  may  produce  heat  by  contraction  of 
its  mass  as  it  approaches  the  earth's  surface.  But  if  a 
meteor  is  dissolved  into  gaseous  elements  by  the  sun's 
thermic  force,  it  will  absorb  heat.  A  meteor  striking  the 
solar  surface  has  two  forces  bearing  on  it:  The  intense 
gravitational  force  having  a  contracting  influence;  and 
the  intense  heat  having  a  diffusing  influence.  By  the 
former  a  slight  amount  of  heat  might  be  emitted,  but  it 
must  be  considered  that  a  maximum  condensation  in  the 
meteoric  substance  has  been  approached  before  reaching 
the  solar  surface. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
Radiant  Energy. 

RAYS  FROM  ELECTRIFIED  PARTIAL  VACUA. 

A  glass  tube  is  exhausted  to  a  degree  approaching  a 
complete  vacuum  of  its  gaseous  content — a  residuum 
must  be  left  for  the  purpose  of  electric  convection.  The 
tube  then  contains  two  elements,  the  "cathode  particle" 
which  theoretically  we  have  constructed  of  two  funda- 
mental units  of  positive  character,  and  one  of  negative 
character ;  and  an  aggregation  of  negative  matter  termed 
the  "anode  particle"  in  a  measure  intrinsically  bound 
by  cathode  particles,  and  extrinsically  herded  by  the 
induction  fields  of  other  cathode  particles.  Quantita- 
tively the  cathode  particle  is  related  to  the  anode  par- 
ticle as  1  to  1700,  the  latter  approaching  the  size  of 
the  hydrogen  atom. 

The  cathode  particles  within  the  tube  are  reached  by 
the  dissolving  properties  of  the  residual  gas,  be  it  oxy- 
gen, hydrogen,  carbon  dioxode,  etc.  The  cathode  par- 
ticle is  the  ultimate  ponderable  and  binding  unit  of  the 
molecules  of  these  gases,  whether  it  be  positive  hydrogen 
or  negative  oxygen.  It  is  clear  that  a  tube  completely 
exhausted  of  its  ponderable  content  is  still  permeated  by 
the  concentrating  or  gravitational  lines  of  force  of  the 
earth  superinduced  by  those  of  the  sun.  No  ponderable 
substance  could  withstand  its  own  dissolving  properties 
within  a  space  in  which  all  matter  and  all  force  were 
otherwise  excluded.  The  material  of  the  tube  would 
dissolve  into  cathode  particles  and  ultimate  negative 
elements. 

When  a  partial  vacuum  tube  is  electrified  the  cathode 
particle,  being  positive,  electrolytically  seeks  the  nega- 
tively charged  cathode;  and  the  anode  particle,  being 
negative,  electrolytically  seeks  the  anode.  The  cathode 


230  CATHODE  RAYS. 

and  anode  particles  become  electrified,  the  first  nega- 
tively, and  the  latter  positively,  at  their  respective  poles. 

Now  mark  the  difference  between  the  behavior  of 
these  particles,  and  in  doing  so  bear  in  mind  that  they 
are  dominated  by  their  respective  charges  of  electricity. 
The  positively  charged  anode  particle  relatively  has 
slight  radiating  force  which  is  principally  owing  to  the 
concentrativeness  of  positive  electricity.  In  clotting  of 
blood,  and  in  its  effects  on  the  tissues,  in  general,  the 
positive  electric  current  exhibits  its  concentrating  qual- 
ities. Rays  from  the  anode  may  have  a  speed  of  10,000 
to  20,000  miles  per  second.  They  are  stopped  by  a 
sheet  of  paper.  In  a  strong  electric  field  they  are  de- 
flected towards  the  negative  pole.  Their  energy  depends 
on  the  elasticity  of  the  induction  field  of  the  electric 
charge,  which  has  the  property  of  impenetrability  to  like 
fields — the  magnetic  law  of  likes  repelling;  and  also 
upon  the  positive  charge  seeking  a  point  of  neutraliza- 
tion. When  the  cathode  rays  are  obstructed  by  placing 
a  lamella  of  glass  in  their  path,  neutralization  of  the 
electric  currents  takes  place  in  the  lamella,  and  anode 
rays  will  pass  from  the  anode  to  the  lamella — a  stream 
of  negative  matter  positively  charged. 

The  cathode  rays,  the  negatively  electrified  cathode 
particles,  constitute  a  stream  of  luminous  matter  issuing 
on  straight  lines  perpendicularly  to  the  surface  of  the 
cathode,  and  independently  of  the  position  of  the  anode, 
which  may  enter  at  any  part  of  the  tube  without  affect- 
ing the  direction  of  the  radiant  stream.  The  bombarded 
spot  of  an  opposing  surface  manifests  a  singular  illumi- 
nation. The  cathode  rays  have  mechanical  properties, 
and  are  deflected  by  a  magnet.  They  are  capable 
of  charging  a  body  with  negative  electricity.  They  pro- 
duce fluorescence,  affect  the  photographic  plate,  and 


ROENTGEN  BAYS.  231 

possess  a  degree  of  penetration  of  opaque  bodies  depend- 
ing on  the  potential  of  the  current,  the  rarity  of  resi- 
duum, and  the  character  of  the  medium.  The  cathode 
rays  heat  the  bombarded  object.  Their  properties  do 
not  depend  on  the  character  of  the  residual  gas.  Ulti- 
mately the  electric  charges  on  the  anode  and  cathode 
particles  must  meet  and  mutually  neutralize. 

The  Roentgen  Rays  have  their  origin  at  the  bom- 
barded spot.  The  characteristics  of  these  rays  are  as 
follows:  They  affect  the  photographic  plate;  produce 
fluorescence  of  certain  salts;  and  pass  through  sub- 
stances entirely  opaque  to  ordinary  light,  as  paper,  wood, 
hard  rubber,  etc.  They  have  distinctive  relative  power 
in  penetrating  flesh  and  bones.  They  are  not  electrically 
charged,  but  discharge  bodies  already  charged  by  ren- 
dering the  air  an  electric  convector.  They  are  not  re- 
flected by  metallic  surfaces,  but  are  irregularly  diffused, 
and  are  changed  in  character  thereby,  becoming  more 
like  ordinary  light,  and  with  diminished  penetrating 
power.  This  latter  fact  portrays  the  resemblance  be- 
tween Roentgen  rays  and  ultra  violet  radiations. 

Roentgen  rays  of  great  intensity  become  visible.  As 
the  pressure  of  the  tube  is  lessened  to  a  definite  minimum, 
and  the  potential  of  the  current  proportionally  increased, 
the  Roentgen  rays  are  more  penetrating.  With  a  maxi- 
mum decrement  consistent  with  electric  convection,  and 
under  the  greatest  electric  potential,  the  rays  will  pass 
through  metals,  shells,  etc.  In  reference  to  these  radia- 
tions deductions  from  the  hypotheses  lead  to  the  follow- 
ing conclusions: 

1.  Anode  particles  are  indefinite  aggregations  of  neg- 
ative matter  with  a  limited  binding  of  positive  matter, 
and  the  superinduced  gravitational  lines  of  force  of  the 
earth  and  sun ;  externally  they  are  herded  by  the  induc- 
tion fields  of  cathode  particles. 


232  RADIANT  ENERGY. 

2.  Electrically  anode  particles  become  charged  posi- 
tively and  their  radiant  energy  is  attained  by  virtue  of 
the  impenetrability  of  induction  fields  to  like  fields  ac- 
cording to  the  magnetic  law  of  likes  repelling;  and  also 
by  virtue  of  the  fundamental  neutralization  law. 

3.  The  speed  of  anode  rays  is  retarded  by  the  con- 
centrativeness  of  the  positive  charge;  and  the  penetrat- 
ing power  is  hampered  by  the  size  of  the  particle. 

4.  When  under  minimum  pressure  cathode  particles 
are  the  ultimates  of  the  analyses  of  ponderable  matter. 
Under  the  relation  of  all  matter  to  all  space  they  are 
indivisible,  and  their  intrinsic  binding  force  is  the  con- 
centrativeness  of  positive  units.     However,  a  cathode 
particle  may  possess  a  varied  constitution  dependent  on 
the  degree  of  exhaustion  of  the  tube.    It  may  be  one  of 
the  many  chemical  elements  in  equilibrium  between  the 
minimum  and  maximum  pressure  consistent  with  electric 
convection. 

5.  Cathode  rays  are  cathode  particles  charged  nega- 
tively.    Their  radiant  energy  is  principally  the  mutual 
repulsion  or  difflusibility  of  negative   (electric)   units; 
and  their  penetrating  power  depends  on  the  minuteness 
of  the  particles  and  the  energy  of  their  charges.    They 
are  independent  of  the  position  of  the  anode  by  virtue 
of  their  intrinsic  diffusibility.     They  have  been  termed 
' '  Electrons, ' '  which  is  a  misnomer.    The  bombarded  spot 
is  heated  by  the  chemical  action  of  the  particles. 

6.  The  Roentgen  rays  have  as  their  element  a  cor- 
puscle of  ether,  the  extreme  product  of  corpusculation 
in  ultra  violet  radiations.     The  particle  of  the  cathode 
rays  partakes  of  the  form  of  a  comet,  the  tail  leading 
and  the  head  following  as  a  cometary  body  leaves  the 
sun.    The  cathode  particle  loses  this  form  of  polarity  at 
the  bombarded  spot.    The  head  or  positive  part  depolar- 


VIBRATORY  MOTION.  233 

izes  and  emits  a  corpuscle  of  ether  of  minimum  ultra 
violet  dimensions  which  becomes  the  element  of  Roentgen 
rays. 

It  is  conceivable  that  the  particle  of  the  cathode  rays 
admits  of  degrees  of  polarization  owing  to  degrees  of 
electrification,  and  that  the  head  will  then  give  off  a 
larger  corpuscle,  which  will  be  visible.  The  photo- 
graphic plate  is  affected  by  Roentgen  rays  permeating 
the  induction  fields  of  sensitive  salts,  which  dissolve  so 
as  to  accommodate  the  additional  ether.  This  is  a  dem- 
onstration of  the  diffusibility  of  matter.  Roentgen  rays 
render  the  air  a  conductor  of  electricity  by  the  molecules 
of  the  air  dissolving  into  convection  particles. 

VIBRATORY  MOTION RADIUM. 

It  has  been  conceived  that  within  a  molecule  atoms 
are  in  constant  to  and  fro,  or  circulatory  motion.  Again 
it  has  been  conceived  that  molecules  are  in  constant  mo- 
tion as  in  the  kinetic  theory  of  gases.  An  incalculable 
number  of  such  theories  have  obtained  credence.  They 
are  absolutely  foundationless.  The  gravitational  influ- 
ences of  the  earth  and  sun  prohibit  such  vibrations. 
Within  the  sphere  of  positive  matter  the  constituents  of 
a  molecule,  or  those  of  a  mass  are  relatively  at  rest,  and 
only  disturbed  by  extrinsic  force.  This  rule  has  no 
exceptions  as  regards  vibratory  motion. 

When  a  piece  of  soft  iron  is  placed  within  a  field  of 
an  interrupted  electric  current  it  is  magnetized  and  de- 
magnetized with  a  frequency  which  may  be  only  limited 
by  that  of  the  current  interruptions.  The  polarization 
and  depolarization  of  the  iron  typifies  the  processes  of 
of  conductivity  of  nerves,  of  contractability  of  muscles, 
of  the  transmissibility  of  force  by  ether,  and  those  of 
magnetism,  crystalliztion,  and  polarization  of  molecules 


234  RADIUM. 

and  masses  in  general.  The  only  other  primary  motion 
of  the  constituents  of  molecules  or  masses  is  that  of  the 
wave  form  occurring  in  the  transmission  of  sound  and 
light,  which  is  alternate  condensation  and  rarification 
in  the  medium. 

Under  favorable  conditions  when  a  molecule  polarizes 
it  assumes  symmetrical  hemispheres  and  equipotential 
polarities.  Hence  in  crystallization  some  substances  re- 
quire the  presence  of  an  additional  element  such  as  the 
" water  of  crystallization,"  or  "alcohol  of  crystalliza- 
tion"; and  hence  muscularization  requires  the  presence 
of  a  salt.  These  additional  elements  of  polarization  are 
emitted  on  depolarization. 

Radium  has  a  molecule  of  distinctive  equilibrium 
which,  under  pressure,  permits  its  polarization  in  the 
presence  of  specific  associating  elements.  It  polarizes 
and  depolarizes  with  extreme  rapidity,  and  when  polar- 
izing it  symmetrizes  its  hemispheres  by  absorbing  two 
elements  similar  to,  or  identical  with,  the  anode  and 
cathode  particles.  During  polarization  in  order  to  ren- 
der its  poles  equipotential  the  molecule  of  radium  splits 
up  ether  molecules  into  electrical  units,  which  charge  its 
poles — the  pole  constituted  by  the  cathode  particle  is 
negatively  charged,  and  the  pole  constituted  by  the  anode 
particle  is  positively  charged.  The  positively  charged 
anode  particles  are  emitted  during  depolarization  of  the 
radium  molecules  as  alpha  rays;  and  the  negatively 
charged  cathode  particles  as  beta  rays. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  temperature  surrounding  a 
piece  of  radium  is  three  degrees  higher  than  that  of  the 
air  at  a  distance.  Radium  at  moderately  high  or  low 
temperature  does  not  modify  its  radioactivity,  but  when 
placed  in  a  vacuum  it  loses  the  property. 

It  has  been  stated  that  it  requires  about  1600  years 
for  radium  to  lose  one  half  of  its  energy.  The  author 


RADIUM.  235 

is  convinced  that  this  calculation  is  made  on  a  wrong 
basis,  and  that  radium  loses  nothing  by  its  radioactive 
processes.  It  does  not  even  undergo  wear  and  tear  such 
as  ensues  when  a  machine  is  driven  by  hydrostatic  pres- 
sure. Thus  alpha  and  beta  rays  are  accounted  for  by 
their  emission  from  radium  when  its  molecule  depolar- 
izes. The  production  of  gamma  rays,  light,  and  heat, 
together  with  the  source  of  anode  and  cathode  particles, 
are  still  to  be  explained. 

We  will  consider  surrounding  conditions.  Radium  is 
under  atmospheric  pressure  which  is  given  as  about  15 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  Oxygen,  nitrogen,  or  any 
other  element  is  pressing  on  the  surface  of  the  radium 
molecule.  We  will  select  oxygen  as  the  source  of  the 
associating  elements  of  polarization.  Its  molecule  is 
comet  shaped — head  downwards,  tail  upwards.  Hence, 
when  polarizing  the  radium  molecule  chips  and  absorbs 
a  cathode  particle  from  the  positive  head  of  the  oxygen 
molecule;  and  this  is  followed  by  absorbing  part  of  the 
tail  in  order  to  symmetrize  its  hemispheres.  Simultan- 
eously the  differential  polarities  dissociate  an  ether 
molecule  and  the  poles  become  electrically  charged. 

We  have  here  to  consider  the  induction  fields  of  the 
molecules  of  oxygen  and  radium.  The  radium  molecule 
in  equilibrium,  and  having  a  positive  free  force,  is  sur- 
rounded by  an  induction  field  of  ether;  and  the  oxygen 
molecule,  comet  shaped,  having  polar  free  forces,  has 
therefore  induction  fields  of  ether.  The  ether  in  these 
fields  is  disposed  of  as  follows:  The  ether  within  the 
field  of  the  radium  molecule  is  split  up  into  the  polar 
electric  charges;  the  ether  of  the  field  surrounding  the 
tail  of  the  oxygen  molecule  is  set  free  as  heat  and  light ; 
and  the  ether  of  the  molecular  head  radiates  as  an  ultra 
violet  corpuscle. 


236  RADIUM. 

A  molecule  in  a  distant  star  depolarizes  and  sets  free 
an  ether  corpuscle,  which  also  depolarizes,  and  this  cor- 
puscular impulse  is  propagated  for  an  inconceivable  dis- 
tance towards  our  solar  system.  The  inconceivably 
minute  initiative  impulse  travels  this  inconceivable  dis- 
tance because  it  meets  no  resistance  in  the  medium.  It 
is  the  same  with  the  inconceivably  minute  energy  of 
the  radium  molecule  which  has  initiated  an  unequili- 
brium  of  the  various  radiant  elements.  But  even  this 
initiative  is  accomplished  with  the  aid  of  atmospheric 
pressure.  Thus  the  gamma  rays  are  simply  incidental 
to  the  production  of  alpha  and  beta  rays,  and  like  the 
light  from  the  stars  they  move  in  a  medium  giving  little 
or  no  resistance.  Their  penetrating  power  ensues  from 
their  minute  ultra  violet  quality.  The  heat  seeks  equi- 
poise in  the  atmosphere.  The  reactions  as  a  whole  are 
analytic,  and  hence  have  unequilibrated  products  which 
with  the  exception  of  the  gamma  rays  are  acted  upon 
by  atmospheric  pressure.  Atmospheric  pressure  is  the 
main  source  of  energy  of  alpha  and  beta  rays. 

Here  it  is  pertinent  to  state  that  there  are  two  forms 
of  polarization:  (1)  The  magnetic  form  in  which  each 
molecule  of  the  substance  is  polarized;  (2)  the  electro- 
lytic form  in  which  positive  matter  accumulates  at  one 
pole  and  negative  matter  at  the  other.  A  comet  is  the 
most  pronounced  type  of  the  latter  form,  but  the  sun 
and  the  planets  assume  this  form.  The  directing  influ- 
ence in  the  comet's  case  is  the  gravitational  and  electric 
forces  of  the  sun. 

Like  all  other  substances  radium  disintegrates  by 
chemical  or  other  means,  but  its  radioactive  processes 
do  not  necessitate  any  such  change  in  its  own  constitu- 
tion. As  a  result  of  radioactivity  helium,  which  is  inert, 
and  an  emanation  which  is  radioactive,  are  produced. 
The  latter  has  all  the  properties  of  radium,  admits  of 


RADIUM.  237 

greater  concentration,  and  is  more  available  for  thera- 
peutical purposes,  under  certain  conditions. 

It  is  convincing  that  the  loss  of  one  particle  of  the 
emanations,  without  compensating  association,  would  be 
destructive  to  the  vibratory  balance  of  the  radium  mole- 
cule, and  consequently  to  its  efficiency  in  radioactivity. 
Hence  it  is  apparent  that  some  source  of  supply  must  be 
at  hand  from  which  the  radioactive  substance  compen- 
sates its  loss,  thus  preserving  its  mass  and  its  intensity 
of  action. 

We  have  selected  oxygen  as  that  source.  If  the  anode 
particle  is  of  the  same  order  as  an  atom  of  helium  then 
one-fourth  of  an  oxygen  atom  should  be  apportioned  for 
its  formation.  The  mass  of  a  cathode  particle,  which  is 
similar  to  the  element  of  beta  rays,  is  calculated  to  be 
1/1700  of  the  hydrogen  atom.  This  includes  its  electric 
charge  which  we  concluded  to  be  one-fourth  of  its  con- 
stituent value.  We  will  say  that  about  1/1200  of  the 
atom  of  oxygen  forms  this  particle.  This  will  leave  ap- 
proximately 11/16  of  the  oxygen  atom  which  may  be  as- 
signed to  the  formation  of  the  emanation.  The  emana- 
tion of  radium  is  now  recognized  as  a  chemical  element 
having  an  atomic  weight  of  220,  and  it  is  conceivable  that 
20  atoms  of  oxygen  will  each  contribute  11/16  of  its 
mass  to  form  an  atom  of  the  emanation.  On  this  basis 
it  may  be  predicted  that  the  elements  of  beta  rays  are 
twenty  times  more  numerous  than  the  emanations. 

So  far  no  one  has  been  able  to  detect  any  loss  in  the 
weight  of  radium,  or  any  decrease  in  its  activity.  Yet 
physicists  have  concluded  that  it  loses  weight  and  de- 
creases in  activity,  otherwise,  as  it  appears  to  them,  the 
principle  of  conservation  of  energy  would  be  infringed 
upon.  The  amount  of  heat  evolved  by  the  activity  of 
radium  has  been  measured  by  Curie  with  exactness.  On 


238  URANIUM. 

the  supposition  that  this  heat  energy  is  evolved  by 
the  disintegration  of  radium  it  is  estimated  that  one 
gram  will  furnish  two  thousand  million  calories,  or  three 
thousand  times  the  amount  of  heat  evolved  by  the  com- 
bustion of  one  gram  of  coal.  The  question  has  been  put : 
Can  man  gain  control  of  this  marvelous  accumulation  of 
"subatomic  energy"?  The  answer  is  that  the  first  step 
towards  controlling  the  energy  is  to  comprehend  the 
conditions  of  its  production.  That  the  energy  is  atomic 
or  subatomic  is  certainly  incomprehensible. 

When  a  substance  is  subjected  to  heat  it  may  undergo 
molecular  dissociation,  but  heat  in  this  case  is  absorbed ; 
or  if  pressure  is  decreased  dissociation  may  take  place 
but  in  this  case  also  ether  (heat)  is  absorbed,  in  both 
instances  by  increase  of  molecular  fields.  Again  if  ra- 
dium is  disintegrating  during  radio  activity  reduced 
pressure  would  favor  the  process,  which  it  does  not.  On 
the  other  hand  when  a  molecule  of  oxygen  is  broken  up 
by  the  polarization  of  the  radium  molecule  the  latter 
remains  unaltered,  the  components  of  the  oxygen  mole- 
cule furnishing  the  energy  under  atmospheric  pressure, 
their  potential  energy  being  changed  to  an  active  one. 
Thus  the  oxygen  molecules,  comet  shaped,  have  positive 
and  negative  polar  fields  of  ether,  and  the  results  of  dis- 
integration are  electrically  charged  alpha  and  beta  par- 
ticles, and  neutral  particles  of  helium  and  the  emanation. 
Thus,  these  particles  having  little  or  no  intermolecular 
ether,  the  ether  in  the  two  oxygen  fields  radiates  as  heat, 
light,  and  gamma  rays.  What  the  radium  molecule 
really  does  is  to  break  up  the  oxygen  molecule  into  radi- 
ating particles,  and  ether  molecules  into  electric  charges. 
Atmospheric  pressure  does  the  rest. 

Uranium  X  and  Thorium  X — Equilibrium:  Crookes 
and  Bequerel  by  chemical  processes  separated  an  un- 
known substance  which  they  named  Ur  X.  This  sub- 


AURORAE.  239 

stance  gave  out  beta  rays  but  no  alpha  rays.  Conversely 
uranium  had  lost  the  property  of  emitting  beta  rays 
but  retained  that  of  emitting  alpha  rays.  Gradually  Ur 
X  lost  its  radiating  property  and  uranium  regained 
fully  its  property. 

From  the  molecule  of  ether  to  the  solar  system  all 
matter  is  under  an  equilibrium  or  seeking  an  equili- 
brium (see  page  97),  the  causal  factors  of  equilibrium 
being  pressure,  temperature,  modified  by  surrounding 
elements.  As  regards  the  elements  of  construction  the 
author  in  a  former  work  advanced  the  conception  that 
the  higher  atmosphere  was  similar  to  a  partial  vacuum 
tube  where  cathode  particles  were  produced.  Owing  to 
their  minuteness  and  positive  character  these  filter  down- 
ward in  the  molecular  interspaces,  and  the  lower  atmos- 
phere is  thus  saturated  with  these  particles.  There- 
fore in  the  atmosphere  all  the  required  elements  are 
present  for  building  up  a  molecule  to  its  full  equilibrium. 
The  particles  will  have  a  specific  pressure  apart  from 
that  of  the  atmosphere. 

Uranium  X  splits  up  a  molecule  of  oxygen  on  polariz- 
ing and  absorbs  anode  and  cathode  particles,  and  on 
depolarizing  it  radiates  cathode  particles  but  retains 
anode  particles  until  it  is  built  up  to  a  state  of  inactive 
equilibrium.  The  converse  of  this  occurs  as  regards 
uranium,  which  radiates  anode  particles  but  retains 
cathode  particles  until  reaching  an  active  equilibrium. 

AURORAE   POL-ARES. 

The  rays  of  an  aurora  polaris  cross  the  magnetic  meri- 
dian at  right  angles,  are  parallel  to  the  dipping  needle, 
commonly  move  westward,  and  frequently  have  a  strong 
tremulous  motion.  It  seems  that  the  causal  forces  of 
aurorae  sometimes  takes  on  the  form  of  thunder  storms. 


240  AUBORAE. 

It  has  been  conjectured  by  Mr.  Canton,  that  aurorae  are 
electrical  discharges. 

The  light  of  the  auroral  spectrum  usually  consists  of 
a  single  line  in  the  greenish  yellow  which  does  not  coin- 
cide with  the  spectral  line  of  any  known  substance. 
Aurorae  reach  maxima  every  ten  or  eleven  years,  a 
period  coinciding  with  that  of  the  maxima  of  sun  spots. 

In  the  month  of  May,  1921,  aurorae  were  observed  in 
California  of  the  most  brilliant  character.  Streamers 
reached  from  the  northern  horizon  to  beyond  the  zenith, 
and  displayed  all  the  colors  of  the  rainbow.  Near  the 
zenith  a  canopy  of  light  was  displayed  which  scattered 
and  appeared  as  luminous  clouds.  Wireless  telegraphy 
along  the  coast  was  notably  disturbed. 

In  Chapter  V  we  have  explained  the  processes  of 
mountain  building,  volcanic  eruptions,  and  earthquakes, 
on  the  basis  of  back  electric  currents  from  the  terrestial 
poles  neutralizing  within  the  unstratified  portion  of 
the  earth.  It  will  be  observed  that  we  follow  (Figs.  17 
and  19)  the  aurora  polaris  under  normal  conditions  to 
the  poles  of  the  sun ;  and  that  the  initiatory  interruption 
of  the  solar  terrestial  thermo-electric  cycle  occurs  in  the 
sun,  eventuating  in  sun  spots,  and  concurrently  in  the 
sequelae  of  back  electric  currents  as  manifested  on  the 
earth.  Mark  the  important  fact  of  the  relation  of  sun 
spots  to  the  terrestial  phenomena  being  a  coincidence 
of  results  from  a  common  cause. 

We  will  define  aurorae  in  abnormal  positions  as  mani- 
festations of  convection  electric  currents  from  the  normal 
aurorae  polares  seeking  neutralization  through  the  at- 
mosphere, the  pathway  of  least  resistance  under  attend- 
ant conditions.  The  manifestations  of  an  abnormal 
aurora  are  derived  in  a  great  measure  from  the  neu- 
tralization of  north  and  south  polar  aurorae;  and  such 
neutralization  explain  thunder  storms  and  like  phe- 
nomena. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
White  Light. 

The  analysis  of  white  light  by  the  spectroscope  shows 
that  it  may  be  decomposed  into  all  the  colors,  and  an 
indefinite  number  of  shades  whereby  each  color  grad- 
ually emerges  into  the  adjoining  ones.  In  addition  the 
spectrum  extends  through  the  fields  of  the  ultra  red  and 
ultra  violet  radiations.  The  constituents  of  white  light 
on  emerging  from  the  glass  prism  of  the  spectroscope 
are  bent  towards  the  thick  end  of  the  prism,  and  from 
red  to  violet  they  are  increasingly  bent. 

The  explanation  of  the  facts  relative  to  white  light  is 
clear.  The  induction  fields  of  ponderable  molecules  are 
differentially  dimensioned,  and  the  ether  set  free  from 
these  fields  differ  in  quantity  from  the  minute  ultra  vio- 
let to  the  relatively  larger  ultra  red  corpuscle.  A  mole- 
cule of  a  metal  at  a  white  heat  is  radiating  a  corpuscle 
whose  components  embrace  all  the  colors. 

Glass  is  a  compound  of  silica  with  one  or  more  basic 
substances  fused  at  a  very  high  temperature.  The  high 
temperature  means  that  ether  in  relatively  large  quan- 
tities is  polarized  in  the  molecular  fields,  and  this  is  the 
essential  factor  in  transparency.  The  molecular  fields  of 
glass  are  capable  of  transmitting  a  corpuscle  of  ether 
equal  in  value  to  all  the  color  corpuscles  of  the  rainbow, 
and  when  fusing  at  a  white  heat  it  emits  such  corpuscles. 
These  facts  indicate  that  white  light  is  a  distinct  color 
whose  corpuscular  value  is  that  of  the  ultra  red  class, 
and  it  is  clearly  conceivable  that  a  special  cell  is  pro- 
vided in  the  eye  to  distinguish  and  absorb  it. 

In  a  uniformly  depolarized  ether  field  the  white  light 
corpuscle  is  transmitted  in  the  same  manner  as  the 


242  WHITE  LIGHT. 

other  colors,  but  on  passing  through  polarized  fields  as 
those  of  a  glass  prismatically  shaped  the  results  differ. 
The  other  color  corpuscles  pass  through  a  limited  area 
particular  to  each,  and  though  bent  they  maintain  their 
corpuscular  integrity ;  on  the  other  hand  the  white  light 
corpuscle  covers  the  whole  molecular  induction  field  of 
the  glass,  and  on  leaving  the  field  its  integral  parts  form 
an  indefinite  number  of  corpuscles.  If  we  study  the  lines 
of  the  polarized  field  of  a  magnet  (Fig.  22)  it  will  be 
quite  apparent  why  corpuscles  of  light  are  bent  in  dif- 
ferent degrees. 

The  polarized  lines  radiate  outwards  from  the  surface 
of  the  molecule  (Fig.  30),  and  they  diffuse  as  they  pass 
outward.  Hence  a  line  drawn  through  ether  of  uniform 
density  will  be  at  right  angles  to  the  polarized  lines,  and 
will  have  a  greater  curve  the  more  distant  it  is  from  the 
molecular  surface  (see  pages  209,  210).  The  degree  of 
resistance  to  radiation  and  the  degree  of  the  density  of 
the  medium  depend  on  the  intensity  of  the  polarization. 
Thus  it  may  be  postulated :  That  each  white  light  com- 
ponent, of  corpuscular  equivalency,  will  follow  a  path- 
way, through  a  polarized  field  of  ether,  of  a  breadth 
equal  to  the  length  of  its  wave  front,  and  presenting  a 
resistance  equal  to,  or  less  than,  its  energy  content. 

Glass  is  composed  of  polarized  molecules  in  parallel 
lines  running  from  pole  to  pole.  At  the  terminal  poles 
the  molecular  polar  fields  have  increased  area,  and  the 
density  lines  have  greater  curves.  Now  the  lines  being 
diagonally  cut,  it  follows  that  they  terminate  along  the 
two  prismatic  sides.  It  is  evident  that  this  fact  accounts 
for  the  rays  being  bent  on  leaving  the  prismatically 
shaped  glass. 

It  is  clear  that  corpuscular  radiations  selectively  pene- 
trate resisting  media;  and  in  all  cases  of  differentiated 


DOPPLER  PRINCIPLE.  243 

penetrability  it  is  the  adaptability  of  the  corpuscle  to 
the  pathway  as  regards  content  of  material  and  energy 
which  is  the  enabling  factor.  The  material  of  the  cor- 
puscle must  supplant  the  displaced  material  of  the  field, 
and  the  energy  of  the  corpuscle  must  overcome  the  re- 
sistance of  the  field. 

REFLECTION    OF    LIGHT. 

Under  great  pressure  the  polarized  lines  of  force  may 
in  whole  or  in  part  surround  the  mass  instead  of  being 
intermolecular,  and  in  this  case  the  light  radiations,  fol- 
lowing the  induction  fields  of  the  mass,  are  reflected. 


THE  DOPPLER  PRINCIPLE. 

If  the  source  of  light,  such  as  a  star,  be  stationary  the 
specific  character  of  its  radiations  will  be  shown  in  its 
spectrum.  If  the  same  source  be  travelling  away  from 
the  observer  the  light  lines  in  the  spectrum  will  move 
toward  the  red  end.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  source 
be  travelling  towards  the  observer  the  light  lines  will 
move  towards  the  violet  end. 

On  studying  the  induction  field  of  a  polarizing  mole- 
cule it  will  be  apparent  that  it  enlarges,  when  surround- 
ing ponderable  pressure  is  reduced,  and  hence  on  depo- 
larization a  larger  corpuscle  of  ether  will  be  set  free. 
Now  this  is  the  case  of  the  hindermost  part  of  a  moving 
body  as  its  atmosphere  does  not  acquire  the  momentum 
of  the  solid  body  and  thus  tends  to  lag  behind.  On  the 
other  hand  if  the  surrounding  pressure  is  increased  a 
smaller  corpuscle  will  be  emitted,  and  this  is  the  case 
at  the  front  of  the  moving  body.  The  principle  of 
Doppler  is  thus  fully  explained  and  upheld. 

Doppler's  principle  shows  that  density  of  surrounding 
ponderable  matter  is  a  factor  in  producing  and  differen- 


244  ABSORPTION  OF  LIGHT. 

tiating  color  corpuscles.  But  clearly  the  density,  or  de- 
gree of  polarization  of  the  ether,  does  not  depend  on 
the  ponderable  pressure  but  on  the  quantity  of  the  free 
force  of  the  ponderable  molecule,  only  the  quantitative 
value  of  the  corpuscle  depends  on  the  degree  of  ponder- 
able pressure. 


ABSORPTION   OF  LIGHT   BY   GASES. 

A  layer  of  gas  or  vapor  between  the  source  of  white 
light  and  a  spectroscope  absorbs  the  colors  which  it  emits 
if  incandescent.  The  remaining  part  of  the  white  light 
then  appears  as  a  bright  line  spectrum. 

The  property  of  a  gas  absorbing  its  own  color  of  emis- 
sion approaches  the  function  of  the  optic  nerve  in  dif- 
ferentiating colors.  The  molecules  of  the  intervening 
gas  are  not  polarized  and  their  fields  possess  enough  of 
ether  to  satisfy  one  polarity  when  vibrating  in  incandes- 
cence. When  white  light  is  passing  through  the  gas  it 
absorbs  enough  of  ether  to  satisfy  the  remaining  polar- 
ity, and  this  it  emits  when  incandescent.  The  portion 
of  the  gas  approximating  the  source  of  white  light  evi- 
dently emits  as  well  as  absorbs  its  particular  color. 


LIGHT   AND   ITS   SOURCE. 

Is  the  velocity  of  light  independent  of  that  of  its 
source?  Light  does  not  receive  an  impulse  from  mass 
movement  but  from  depolarization  of  the  molecules  of 
the  mass,  or  of  the  ether  within  their  fields.  Light  cor- 
puscles are  entirely  imponderable  and  incapable  of  ac- 
quiring a  momentum.  Light  neither  gains  nor  spends 
force  in  an  open  field  of  ether.  If  it  were  possible  for 


VELOCITY  OF  RADIATIONS.  245 

the  source  to  move  towards  us  faster  than  light  there 
would  be  no  light,  as  the  light  corpuscles  would  be 
absorbed  as  heat  by  the  moving  body,  or  it  would  be  left 
behind  and  arrive  later.  We  might  then  see  the  distant 
surface  of  the  body  as  its  light  radiates  through  the  ether 
rushing  in  behind  it.  If  the  source  be  moving  from  us, 
the  rays,  being  free  from  gravitation,  will  be  independ- 
ent of  its  source  immediately  on  emission,  but  altered 
according  to  the  Doppler  principle. 

These  conclusions  apply  to  a  source  surrounded  by  a 
field  of  free  or  depolarized  ether.  If,  however,  the  source 
of  light  is  a  sun,  or  other  body  of  high  potential,  sur- 
rounded by  an  intensely  polarized  field  of  ether,  some 
part  of  the  medium  may  be  carried  along  with  the  source. 
In  the  case  of  such  a  source  moving  from  us  with  the 
velocity  of  light,  the  light  would  still  have  relative  mo- 
tion as  regards  its  source,  but  no  absolute  motion  or  rela- 
tive motion  as  regards  space,  until  it  reached  the  bounds 
of  the  moving  medium.  In  the  case  of  a  source  moving 
towards  us  the  light  would  double  its  absolute  motion 
and  would  maintain  its  usual  motion  relative  to  its 
source  until  it  reached  the  bounds  of  the  moving  medium. 

The  postulate  stands  thus:  The  velocity  of  light  is 
independent  of  the  velocity  of  its  source  as  regards  both 
absolute  and  relative  motion;  and  its  velocity  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  velocity  of  the  medium  as  regards  rela- 
tive motion,  but  is  dependent  as  regards  absolute  motion. 


VELOCITY  OP  RADIATIONS. 

The  color  elements  of  light  have  the  same  speed.  They 
decrease  in  caloric  value  or  material  quantity,  and  in 
energy  content  or  condensative  potency,  from  the  red  to 
the  violet.  Velocity  in  a  non-ponderable  or  non-resisting 


246  ETHER  LIMITATIONS. 

medium  is  not  proportional  to  the  energy  content  of  the 
corpuscle,  because  there  is  no  energy  spent  in  passing 
through  an  equilibrated  field  of  ether.  The  laws  of  pon- 
derable matter  do  not  apply  to  an  imponderable  medium. 
The  heat  energy  of  a  corpuscle  is  proportional  to  its 
material  quantity,  but  clearly  ether  in  relation  to  ther- 
mic activity  is  mainly  a  passive  agent,  the  active  agency 
being  the  diffusive  property  of  ponderable  matter.  Ether 
as  a  factor  in  heat  manifestations  is  unequilibrated  in 
relation  to  ponderable  matter,  but  may,  or  may  not  be, 
equilibrated  in  relation  to  space. 

The  dissolving  qualities  of  ponderable  matter  in  the 
presence  of  heat  is  identical  with  its  dissolving  qualities 
in  partial  vacua.  The  ether  in  a  vacuum  (a  space  ex- 
cluding ponderable  matter)  is  in  equilibrium  as  regards 
space,  and  in  partial  vacua  becomes  equilibrated  in  rela- 
tion to  ponderable  matter  when  the  latter  equilibrates. 

In  an  equilibrated  field  of  ether  heat  must  radiate  as 
waves,  and  must  have  the  same  speed  as  light,  but  the 
waves  are  not  corpusculated.  They  cannot  assume  the 
transverse  character  of  water  waves  as  ether  has  no  sur- 
face, and  are  therefore  perpendicular  to  the  line  of 
propagation  as  in  sound  waves. 


LIMITATIONS  OF  ETHER  AS  A   MEDIUM. 

Ether  is  the  great  medium  of  transmission  of  force 
between  ponderable  bodies,  whether  it  be  in  the  nature 
of  attraction,  repulsion,  or  neutralization;  or  whether 
it  be  as  light  or  heat  radiation.  Even  in  the  transmis- 
sion of  sound  the  presence  of  ether  is  essential  to  the 
elasticity  of  the  ponderable  medium.  It  is  a  carrier  of 
force  by  virtue  of  its  polarizing,  condensative  and  elas- 
tic properties.  But  these  properties  have  limitations. 


CORPUSCULAR  LIMITATIONS.  247 

A  magnet  may  be  polarized  to  a  maximum  degree  and 
so  it  is  with  ether.  The  intrinsic  force  of  an  atom  of 
ether  cannot  be  externally  directed  to  an  extent  more 
than  one  half  of  its  value.  This  is  the  limitation  of  the 
molecule  as  a  carrier.  We  will  apply  this  conception 
to  the  sun's  forces.  It  is  possible  that  the  solar  gravita- 
tional or  positive  forces  are  beyond  the  capacity  of  sur- 
rounding ether  to  fully  transmit  them.  These  forces 
must  be  neutralized  either  externally  through  the  ether, 
or  within  the  solar  body.  At  the  solar  south  pole  nega- 
tive matter  accumulates  which  must  neutralize  positive 
force.  Now  this  negative  matter  is  center  fleeing,  owing 
to  the  squeeze  of  positive  lines  of  force,  but  if  there  is 
a  surplus  of  gravitational  force  beyond  the  capacity  of 
ether  as  a  carrier  the  negative  matter  of  the  south  pole 
would  be  held  fast  by  the  neutralizing  capacity  of  such 
surplus,  and  this  explains  the  presence  of  a  negative  po- 
larity of  the  solar  electrolyte. 

The  conception  of  a  limited  capacity  as  to  transmis- 
sion of  force  does  not  apply  to  heat  which  depends  on 
the  unequilibration  of  ether.  The  extent  of  the  sun's 
spots  denotes  the  possible  extent  of  this  unequilibrium. 
On  the  other  hand  ether  has  a  limit  to  its  corpusculation, 
which  applies  to  light. 


CORPUSCULAR    LIMITATIONS. 

Corpusculation  of  ether  has  limitations.  The  infra 
violet  corpuscle  cannot  be  less  than  two  molecules  of 
ether.  Theoretically  this  is  the  limit  placed  upon  it  by 
the  ether  itself.  A  limitation  is  also  placed  upon  it  by 
the  limit  of  the  polar  potential  of  its  principal,  the  pon- 
derable molecule. 


248  CORPUSCULAR  LIMITATIONS. 

In  considering  the  limitation  of  ultra  red  corpuscula- 
tion  several  factors  of  importance  obtain:  The  relation 
of  all  matter  to  all  space  furnishing  a  minimum  pressure 
which  tends  to  maintain  corpuscular  integrity ;  the  fund- 
amental law  that  positive  and  negative  matter  seek  neu- 
tralization at  minimum  distance  and  by  maximum  con- 
tact, and  the  law  of  repulsion  between  negative  units, 
which  tend  to  produce  dispersion.  Thus  there  is  a  limi- 
tation to  the  size  of  corpuscules  determined  by  an  equili- 
brium of  the  related  forces.  These  factors  of  limitation 
have  also  a  bearing  on  the  dispersion  of  white  light  by 
the  spectroscope.  Also  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  size 
of  each  molecule  and  each  independent  body  in  the  uni- 
verse is  determined  by  related  forces.  The  corpuscular 
masses  of  ether  could  not  attain  to  the  size  of  marbles. 
Moreover  as  with  the  infra  violet  the  supra  red  cor- 
puscle cannot  excel  the  limitations  of  the  polar  potentials 
of  ponderable  molecules. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
"Electrons."    Electric  Conduction. 

The  definition  of  the  term  "electrons"  has  been  given 
as  " atoms  of  negative  electricity."  Atoms  of  ponder- 
able matter  are  supposed  to  be  made  of  electrons  ' '  which 
may  pass  from  atom  to  atom,  and  are  sometimes  entirely 
separated  from  atoms. "  "  Very  little  is  known  as  to  the 
structure  of  atoms,  but  the  electrons  in  the  atoms  un- 
doubtedly move  about  or  vibrate  very  considerably,  pos- 
sibly somewhat  as  planets  move  about  the  sun,  while  the 
atoms  move  about  inside  the  molecule,  and  molecules 
move  inside  the  mass  of  matter."  "It  is  also  possible 
under  various  conditions  to  have  electrons  existing  more 
or  less  independent  of  atoms  as  'free'  electrons  or  nega- 
tive electric  charges. "  "In  the  discussion  of  views  as  to 
the  nature  of  electric  charges  we  have  seen  that  the  most 
probable  hypothesis  is  that  they  consist  of  electrons,  or 
units  of  electricity,  which  can  be  transferred  from  one 
body  to  another,  an  excess  above  the  normal  constituting 
the  negative  charge,  and  a  deficiency  a  positive  charge. ' ' 
" .  .  .  .  electric  current  consists  of  a  stream  of  electrons 
each  of  which  is  performing  more  or  less  random  mo- 
tions." "The  explanation  is  to  be  found  in  the  fre- 
quent collisions  between  electrons  and  atoms."  Again, 
' '  Those  atoms  of  electricity  we  now  call  electrons. "  "  Ac- 
cording to  the  electron  theory  of  matter  one  or  more 
electrons  are  revolving  about  every  atom.  If  the  number 
of  electrons  revolving  clockwise  is  equal  to  the  number 
revolving  anti-clockwise  then  the  atom  is  non-magnetic. ' ' 

The  above  quotations  are  from  "a  text  book  of 
Physics ' '  having  five  eminent  university  teachers  as  con- 
tributors. The  least  that  can  be  said  of  these  quotations 


250  ELECTRIC  CONDUCTIVITY. 

is  that  they  were  dictated  by  "random  motions"  without 
the  guiding  hand  of  a  fundamental  hypothesis.  With  the 
exception  of  electricity  consisting  of  units,  deductions 
from  the  hypotheses  disagree  with  every  concept  ex- 
pressed. We  have  stated  that  the  term  " electron"  is  a 
misnomer.  The  term  has  been  applied  to  the  element  of 
the  cathode  rays  which  in  extreme  divisibility  is  the  ulti- 
mate ponderable  particle  electrified  negatively,  whose 
mass  has  been  estimated  as  1/1800  of  the  hydrogen  atom, 
but  three-fourths  of  which  is  ponderable  matter  and  only 
one-fourth  electricity.  Again,  electricity  never  exists, 
and  cannot  exist,  independently  of  ponderable  matter, 
because  of  its  high  potentiality.  A  ponderable  particle, 
however  intense  its  force,  when  assuming  the  molecular 
form,  as  the  cathode  particle  in  extreme  diffusibility,  sur- 
rounds itself  with  ether  which  is  polarized,  and  thus  local 
neutralization  of  the  free  force  of  the  molecule  occurs. 
(Fig.  2).  If  an  electric  charge  attach  itself  to  the  particle 
then  the  free  force  consists  of  electric  charge,  and  polar- 
ization of  the  surrounding  ether  takes  place  accordingly. 
(Fig.  31).  There  is  always  moving  ponderable  matter 
in  electric  convection  currents  (Fig.  8).  In  electric 
conduction  the  electric  units  are  attached  to  stable  pon- 
derable molecules.  A  space  filled  with  ether  affords  no 
electric  conductivity. 

We  have  stated  that  the  ultimate  ponderable  unit  pos- 
sesses an  equivalency  of  two  electric  positive  units  and 
one  negative,  the  ponderable  equivalents  being  identical 
with  electric  units.  But  the  author  is  convinced  that 
ponderable  and  electric  matter  are  never  mutually  trans- 
formed, finding  no  evidence  of  such  transformation. 
Ether  and  electric  matter  have  chemical  relations,  but 
ether  and  electric  matter  have  only  physical  relations 
to  ponderable  matter,  in  as  much  as  they  never  become 


DIFFUSION.  251 

constituents  of  ponderable  molecules.  The  quantity  of 
ether  as  related  to  the  quantity  of  ponderable  matter  is 
determined  by  the  relation  of  all  matter  and  all  force 
to  all  space,  and  these  relations  are  unchangeable.  The 
only  difference  between  electric  units  and  their  ponder- 
able equivalents  in  the  constitution  of  the  cathode  par- 
ticle is  the  absolute  freedom  from  dissociation  of  the 
latter  by  the  forces  of  nature.  A  free  molecular  force 
is  exactly  the  same  as  an  electric  force  the  only  difference 
being  in  regard  to  stability. 

Electric  conductivity  is  explained  as  follows:  Gen- 
erally it  is  the  negative  unit  which  travels;  but  elec- 
trodes placed  on  the  human  body  demonstrate  by  differ- 
ential effects  that  both  units  travel  until  great  resistance 
is  met  with,  which  the  negative  current  is  more  capable 
of  overcoming.  The  author  in  a  former  work  described 
the  trapeziform  method  whereby  each  ponderable  mole- 
cule becomes  charged,  and  by  performing  a  swinging 
motion  delivers  its  charge  to  the  next  in  line,  and  re- 
bounding, takes  on  a  second  charge.  With  each  move- 
ment there  is  a  vibration — polarization  and  depolariza- 
tion— in  the  conducting  molecule.  This  is  evidently  the 
mode  of  electric  conduction  in  metals  as  evidenced  by  the 
oscillations  in  inductive  fields. 


DIFFUSION    OF    METALS,   LIQUIDS,    GASES. 

Metals  such  as  potassium,  sodium,  lithium,  zinc,  and 
others  of  pronounced  positive  constitution  react  with 
ultra  violet  light.  The  metal  becomes  positively  charged 
when  the  light  is  incident  thereto.  The  explanation  of 
this  is  that  the  unequilibrated  ether  of  the  light  passes 
between  the  molecules  of  the  metal  thus  affording  an 
opportunity  for  the  diffusive  properties  of  matter  to 


252  KINETIC  THEORY. 

become  effective.  The  molecule  being  positive  in  con- 
struction allows  a  cathode  particle  to  separate.  The 
escaping  particle  being  relatively  more  positive  than  the 
remaining  portion,  a  differential  potential  has  been 
created,  the  ether  of  the  light  is  split  up,  and  the  cathode 
particle  is  negatively  charged  and  the  remaining  portion 
positively  charged. 

If  the  metal  is  negatively  charged  originally  it  will 
lose  its  charge.  In  this  case  the  cathode  particle  separ- 
ates, and  being  the  more  positive  element  carries  the  neg- 
ative charge  with  it.  If  the  metal  is  positively  charged 
originally  its  concentrating  effect  may  prevent  any  re- 
action, or  if  separation  of  a  cathode  particle  takes  place, 
it  flies  off  uncharged. 

From  a  work  on  physics  edited  by  A.  Wilmer  Duff  I 
quote  the  following:  "These  photo  electric  effects  as 
they  are  called  have  been  shown  to  be  due  to  the  libera- 
tion of  negative  copuscles,  or  electrons,  from  the  metal 
by  the  action  of  ultra  violet  light." 

Our  deductions  in  this  case  are  positive  in  character : 
A  metallic  molecule  being  distinctly  dominated  by  posi- 
tive force  can  not  emit  a  negative  corpuscle,  "electron" 
or  any  negative  constituent  whatever,  except  on  being 
absolutely  dissociated,  its  negative  constituents  being  in 
a  minority  are  effectively  bound  by  its  positive  forces. 

Boyle's  law:  "The  volume  of  a  gas  at  constant  tem- 
perature varies  inversely  as  its  pressure."  This  law  is 
fully  explained  on  the  basis  of  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  diffusability. 

The  Kinetic  theory  of  gases :  "A  gas  consists  of  par- 
ticles in  continuous  motion."  This  theory  is  incompat- 
ible with  the  law  of  gravitation  which  fixes  molecules  in 
relative  stability.  No  cause  of  the  vibratory  motion  has 
been  assigned,  and  it  is  contrary  to  the  law  of  relativity 
and  equivalence  as  formulated  in  this  work.  The  theory 


ELECTRO  MAGNETIC  THEORY.  253 

violates  the  principle  of  the  conservation  of  energy.  In 
an  homogeneous  element  motion  of  the  particles  would 
have  to  overcome  the  impenetrability  of  like  fields. 

The  forces  of  divisibility  are:  Repulsion  between 
negatives;  the  neutralization  strain;  and  the  secondary 
principle  of  impenetrability  of  like  fields.  Matter,  un- 
der its  fundamental  properties,  is  diffusive  except  when 
its  minority  force  of  concentration  is  supported  by  pres- 
sure. Under  pressure  gases  or  fluids  mix,  because  space 
is  economized  by  the  molecules  of  one  adjusting  them- 
selves to  the  interspaces  of  the  other.  (See  the  descrip- 
tion of  molecules,  page  201).  We  will  postulate  thus: 
No  motion  obtains  in  a  molecule,  atom,  or  subatom,  but 
what  has  a  demonstrable  analogy  in  a  mass. 


ELECTRO    MAGNETIC    THEORY    OF    LIGHT. 

It  has  been  shown  by  experiment  that  electric  conduc- 
tion is  oscillatory.  A  spark  consists  of  a  number  of 
flashes  which  has  a  frequency  of  1/10,000,000  of  a  sec- 
ond. It  has  also  been  shown  that  there  is  a  sympathetic 
response  to  a  primary  conduction  in  an  induction  field, 
if  the  molecules  of  conduction  and  the  molecules  of  in- 
duction, such  as  in  two  identical  wires  placed  parallel 
and  of  the  same  length,  be  exactly  identical  as  regards 
vibratory  frequency  and  resistance.  If  one  wire  is 
longer  than  the  other  the  resistance  varies  and  hence 
the  frequency  is  influenced. 

It  has  been  shown  by  Heinrich  Hertz  that  the  electric 
waves  emanating  from  the  primary  conductor,  and  radi- 
ating through  the  induction  field,  have  the  same  velocity 
as  light.  Clerk  Maxwell  showed  that  it  ought  to  be 
possible  to  create  ether  waves  by  means  of  electrical  dis- 
turbances, and  the  Hertz  experiment  confirms  the  con- 


254  ETHER  WAVES. 

ception  of  Maxwell.  Hertz  waves  have  the  properties 
of  light  waves  in  as  much  as  they  are  reflected,  refracted, 
and  polarized.  But  all  of  this  does,  not  warrant  the 
conclusion  of  modern  physics  that  light  is  an  electro 
magnetic  phenomenon,  or  that  light  waves  are  generated 
by  oscillations  of  electrons. 

We  have  stated  in  other  works  that  electric  conduc- 
tion consists  of  an  alternate  charge  and  discharge  suc- 
cessively of  the  molecules  along  the  conductor,  that  each 
molecule  has  a  trapeziform  swing  whereby  its  selective 
pole  takes  on  an  electric  charge,  and  at  the  other  terminal 
of  the  swing  it  delivers  the  charge  to  the  adjoining  mole- 
cule. This  is  accompanied  by  a  polarization  and  depolar- 
ization as  differentiated  in  Fig.  30,  only,  one  of  the 
molecular  poles  is  electrically  charged  in  place  of  it 
being  neutralized  through  an  ether  field.  In  the  electric 
spark  and  in  the  induction  field  of  an  electric  conductor 
molecular  polarization  and  depolarization  are  the  compo- 
nents of  a  vibration  which  causes  the  oscillation  of  the 
Hertz  waves.  These  are  distinct  from  light  waves  in  as 
much  as  they  are  not  corpusculated.  When  emanating 
from  an  electric  spark  they  partake  of  the  nature  of 
heat  waves;  and  when  emanating  from  an  electric  con- 
ductor they  are  simply  polarizations  and  depolarizations 
induced  in  the  surrounding  field.  However,  in  some 
cases  ether,  as  heat,  and  as  light,  may  be  set  free  from 
molecular  fields,  on  the  molecules  being  polarized,  either 
directly  or  inductively  by  an  electric  charge. 

Light  and  Hertz  waves  have  a  common  source  of  vi- 
bration— polarization  and  depolarization  of  ponderable 
molecules — otherwise  they  are  distinct.  Hertz  waves 
are  inductive,  and  they  neutralize,  and  are  equivalent 
to,  the  potentials  and  motions  involved  in  electric  con- 
duction. The  difference  between  the  frequencies  of 


POLARIZATION  OP  LIGHT.  255 

light  and  Hertz  waves  is  owing  to  the  greater  freedom 
of  molecules  when  incandescent,  than  in  a  conducting 
solid. 

Ether  waves  as  heat  may  be  simply  ether  unequili- 
brated.  Ether  waves  as  light  are  ether  corpusculated, 
with  a  frequency  depending  on  the  period  of  polariza- 
tion and  depolarization  of  the  primary  ponderable  mole- 
cules. Hertz  waves  from  a  spark  are  heat  waves  caused 
by  neutralization  of  electric  currents,  with  a  frequency 
depending  on  the  period  of  polarization  and  depolariza- 
tion of  electric  conduction.  Hertz  waves  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  an  electric  conductor  are  waves  of  induction, 
with  frequencies  the  same  as  in  a  spark. 


POLARIZATION    OF    LIGHT  —  DIMENSIONAL    ORIENTATION    OP 
ITS   CORPUSCLE. 

A  corpuscle  of  light  is  undoubtedly  propagated  inde- 
pendently of  adjoining  corpuscles.  Corpuscles  may, 
however,  be  components  of  a  wave  front,  in  a  ray,  with- 
out loss  of  integrity.  When  propagated  through  an 
equilibrated  field  of  ether  corpuscles  must  assume  a  spe- 
cific form.  Each  corpuscle  must  have  a  length  and 
breadth  of  wave  front.  A  corpuscle,  however,  is  capable 
of  modifying  its  shape.  Its  length  and  breadth  may  be 
differentially  orientated.  Such  change  of  form  evidently 
occurs  when  corpuscles  are  propagated  through  polarized 
fields  of  ether  as  in  crystals  of  tourmaline.  A  corpuscle 
of  light  will  successively  pass  through  two  such  crystals 
if  their  axes  are  parallel ;  but  it  is  obstructed  by  the  sec- 
ond crystal,  if  their  axes  are  crossed,  on  account  of  the 
dimensional  orientation  of  the  corpuscle.  Light  is  said 
to  be  polarized  when  transmitted  by  polarized  fields  of 
the  molecules  of  a  tourmaline  crystal,  but  its  corpuscular 
dimensions  are  simply  orientated. 


256  MAGNETISM. 

The  phenomenon  of  polarization  has  given  rise  to  the 
conception  of  light  being  propagated  by  transverse 
waves.  Such,  however,  is  impossible  in  a  medium  having 
no  surface,  and  in  which  cohesive  properties  are  absent. 
The  law  governing  selective  transmission  of  the  com- 
ponents of  white  light  is  relative  to  this  matter. 


MAGNETISM. 

Deduction  leads  us  to  formulate  the  conception  of  mag- 
netism, crystallization  and  polarization  in  general,  as 
a  pulling  of  all  the  constituent  elements  of  one  quality, 
of  the  molecules  of  the  mass,  towards  one  pole;  and  a 
pushing  of  all  the  elements,  of  the  opposite  quality,  of 
the  molecules,  towards  the  opposite  pole,  the  molecules 
still  retaining  their  integrity.  Thus  each  molecule  has 
poles,  and  the  mass  also  has  poles,  of  positive  and  nega- 
tive quality  (Fig.  30).  In  the  science  of  today  the  earth 
is  considered  as  a  magnet.  This  is  a  mistake  as  the  ter- 
restial  body  is  an  electrolyte  and  as  a  whole  is  not  a 
magnet,  (Figs.  7  and  11).  However,  by  virtue  of  crys- 
taline  rocks  it  may  exercise  magnetic  properties.  The 
magnetic  law  stands  thus:  Unlike  poles  mutually  at- 
tract, like  poles  mutually  repel.  The  attraction  between 
unlike  poles  is  based  on  the  fundamental  law  of  the 
strain  to  neutralize.  Repulsion  is  based  on  the  secondary 
property  of  impenetrability  of  like  induction  fields.  In 
addition  the  fundamental  property  of  attraction  between 
positive  forces — weight — acts  against  impenetrability  of 
fields;  and  the  fundamental  property  of  repulsion  be- 
tween negative  forces  assist  the  secondary  property  of 
impenetrability. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

GRAVITATION    AND    LIGHT. 

Newton  is  credited  with  the  conception  that  gravita- 
tion is  instantaneous  in  its  action  throughout  all  space; 
and  Einstein  with  the  idea  that  no  action  can  exceed 
the  velocity  of  light. 

Gravitation  has  a  single  action  on  the  ether,  that  of 
polarization.  Light  is  propagated  by  double  action — 
condensation  and  elastic  rebound.  Hence  the  conclusion 
that  gravitation  has  twice  the  velocity  of  light.  That  is 
to  say,  if  we  suppose  that  gravitation  was  absolutely  an- 
nihilated between  the  sun  and  earth,  and  then  reinstated 
it  would  take  four  minutes  for  the  solar  force  to  reach 
the  earth.  But  after  reinstatement  the  force  would  be 
continuous  as  in  the  case  of  polarization  of  a  magnet. 
If  gravitation  was  cut  loose  at  the  surface  of  the  sun 
it  would  still  act  for  four  minutes  on  the  earth,  whereas 
solar  light,  if  obscured  at  the  sun's  surface,  would  shine 
on  the  earth  for  eight  minutes.  The  conception  of  New- 
ton that  gravitation  acts  throughout  all  space  is  inadmis- 
sible. Gravitation  is  neutralized  within  solar  systems, 
and  force  can  not  act  beyond  the  bounds  of  neutralization. 


ABSOLUTE  AND  RELATIVE  MOTION. 

Observations  by  astronomers  indicate  that  all  ponder- 
able matter  is  in  motion.  By  deduction  from  the  hypo- 
theses it  is  established  that  motion  is  both  absolute  and 
relative.  The  only  spacially  stable  matter  in  the  uni- 
verse is  the  interstellar  ether.  Under  the  supreme  dif- 
fusible properties  of  matter  it  simply  obeys  the  behests 
of  the  relation  of  matter  to  space.  Marking  a  molecule 


258  ABSOLUTE  AND  RELATIVE  MOTION. 

of  ether  would  enable  us  to  measure  the  absolute  and 
relative  movements  of  the  stars.  It  is  probable  that  the 
solar  system  never  occupies  the  same  space  a  second  time 
in  its  eternal  existence.  This  indicates  absolute  motion. 
On  the  other  hand,  every  movement  of  the  system  in 
space  must  be  reciprocally  related  to  movements  of  other 
astral  bodies.  This  indicates  relative  motion.  Here, 
then,  are  relative  and  absolute  movements  combined. 
All  cosmic  units  (solar  systems)  combine  absolute  move- 
ments, or  movements  relative  to  space,  with  movements 
relative  to  each  other.  Within  a  cosmic  unit  a  body 
moving  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the  system's  motion 
may  maintain,  for  a  limited  time,  a  constant  relation 
to  space. 

All  motions  take  place  in  accordance  with  the  three 
primary  laws  governing  the  fundamental  properties  of 
matter,  and  are  based  upon  an  unequilibrium  constitut- 
ing the  energy  of  the  universe,  which  is  definite  and 
quantitatively  unalterable.  It  follows  that  every  motion 
has  relativity  and  equivalency.  Every  motion  is  towards 
an  equilibrium,  but  reaches  it  by  causing  an  equivalency 
of  unequilibrium,  and  is  itself  the  result  of  a  preceding 
motion  seeking  equilibrium.  According  to  their  funda- 
mental properties  and  the  three  primary  laws  governing 
them,  the  units  of  matter  of  a  solar  system  cannot  be 
placed  in  any  relative  position  or  condition  but  what  a 
definite  unequilibrium  of  force  exists. 

Motion  may  be  viewed  as  relative  to  equivalent  mo- 
tion ;  or  it  may  be  viewed  as  absolute,  id  esi,  relative  to 
space.  But  there  is  an  even  more  important  and  dis- 
tinctive division  which  is  as  follows:  1.  Motion  as 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  ponderable  or  complex 
matter.  2.  Motion  as  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of 
imponderable  or  ether  matter.  Examples  of  relativity 


RELATIVE  MOTION.  259 

of  motion  from  the  ponderable  standpoint  follow:  A 
chemical  reaction  in  which  heat  is  absorbed  is  relative 
to  reaction  in  which  heat  is  emitted.  Heat  radiating 
from  the  sun  is  relative  to  electric  convection  currents 
passing  to  the  solar  body.  The  sun  grows  and  the  planets 
contract.  Our  sun  radiates  heat  into  space  but  this  is 
balanced  by  heat  received  from  the  stars.  A  star  courses 
through  space  but  an  equivalency  of  motion  in  others 
maintain  the  universal  relation  of  stars  to  space.  The 
relation  of  all  matter  to  all  space  is  constant,  disturbance 
by  a  molecule,  by  a  mass,  or  by  a  solar  system  having  its 
relative  equivalency.  The  two  properties  of  matter,  con- 
centrability  of  positive,  and  diffusibility  of  negative,  are 
each  inherent  and  absolute  in  possession,  but  relative  as 
regards  the  opportunity  to  display. 

In  the  Great  Cycle  motion  by  virtue  of  the  positive  or 
concentrating  quality  of  matter  coordinates  with  motion 
by  virtue  of  its  negative  or  diffusing  quality;  and  the 
maximum  potential  energy  of  a  solar  system,  such  as 
our  own,  sequential  to  these  qualities,  has  an  equivalency 
in  the  potential  energy  of  extreme  ionization  in  a  nebula, 
caused  by  the  action  of  the  strain  to  neutralize  by  maxi- 
mum contact  at  minimum  distance  in  all  matter.  The 
motions  of  the  universe  are  a  play  between  the  three 
fundamental  properties  of  matter  above  named — a  play 
that  is  eternal  in  cyclic  form. 

The  relativity  of  motion  is  best  observed  in  electric 
currents.  We  have  here  to  deal  with  so-called  primary 
and  induced  forces.  Isolated  static  forces  seek  neutral- 
ization through  a  medium.  That  is  to  say  that  a  force 
which  is  locally  free  or  unneutralized  must  seek  neutral- 
ization at  a  distance.  The  positive  free  force  of  the  earth 
is  partially  neutralized  by  its  negative  atmosphere.  The 
positive  free  force  of  the  sun  is  partially  neutralized  by 


260  RELATIVITY. 

the  negative  matter  of  the  south  pole.  The  free  positive 
forces  of  the  sun,  as  a  whole,  including  those  of  the 
planets,  must  be  neutralized  within  the  system,  hence 
the  absolute  necessity  of  a  negative  common  atmosphere 
(Fig  6).  It  is  the  same  with  current  forces,  not  only 
as  regards  neutralization  of  their  potentials,  but  as  re- 
gards their  motions.  Consequently  there  are  currents 
of  induction  which  not  only  neutralize  the  primary 
forces  but  neutralize  their  motions  (Fig.  15,  16).  Induc- 
tion fields  are  simply  pathways  towards  complete  neu- 
tralization of  primary  forces. 

Within  the  solar  system  relativity  of  motion  is  exem- 
plified. The  planets  and  solar  photosphere  rotate  around 
their  center  of  gravity  in  the  same  direction.  The  pri- 
mary force  of  rotation  must  reside  in  the  central  portion 
of  the  solar  body  (Fig.  7).  There  are  then  electric  mo- 
tion and  mass  motion  whose  relativities  are  to  be  ac- 
counted for.  The  electric  currents  of  the  sun  (page  87) 
have  their  relative  equivalency  in  the  electric  currents 
of  opposite  direction  in  the  planets;  the  motion  of  the 
positive  matter  of  the  system  has  a  relative  equivalency 
in  the  counter  motion  of  negative  matter,  principally  in 
the  common  atmosphere,  but  exemplified  in  the  outer 
satellites  of  the  major  planets  (Fig.  6). 

Relativity  and  equivalency  are  of  two  classes :  1.  Per- 
taining to  simultaneous  forces  neutralizing  through 
fields,  as  in  the  case  of  primary  and  induced  electric 
potentials.  2.  Pertaining  to  preceding  and  sequential 
forces  as  in  the  case  of  heat  preceding  and  following 
electric  currents. 

We  will  consider  motion  from  the  standpoint  of  ether 
matter,  as  regards  its  relativities.  Alpha  Centauri  is 
25,000,000,000,000  miles,  or  8  light  years  away.  Light 
in  absolute  motion  traverses  space  for  this  distance  in 
this  time.  In  the  meantime  astral  bodies  are  undergoing 


EQUIVALENCY.  261 

relative  movement  to  the  pathway  of  the  beam  of  light 
from  this  star,  but  motion  of  the  stars  and  the  motion  of 
the  ray  are  mutually  independent,  and  without  any  rela- 
tive equivalency  whatever.  Moreover  the  propagation  of 
the  light  is  entirely  independent  of  its  source,  or  its 
motion.  Its  propagation  in  interstellar  space  is  entirely 
independent  of  ponderable  matter  or  its  motion.  How- 
ever, the  motions  of  star  light  are  to  and  from  solar 
systems,  and  here  is  relative  equivalency  from  the  stand- 
point of  ether  or  imponderable  matter,  and  by  this  the 
equilibrium  of  ether  in  space  is  maintained. 

We  have  postulated  that  all  motion  is  relative  to  an 
equivalency  of  counter  motion.  Let  us  apply  this  to 
the  propagation  of  light  without  indulging  in  the  weak- 
ness of  creating  a  special  theory  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
plaining the  relative  facts.  We  will  consider  a  corpuscle 
of  light.  It  is  preceded  by  a  similar  corpuscle,  and  suc- 
ceeded by  another,  both  of  relative  equivalency,  and  in 
this  respect  it  is  analogous  in  principle  to  cyclic  energy ; 
but  it  has  no  inductive  or  neutralizing  simultaneous 
equivalency  as  the  electric  current  has.  This  is  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  corpuscle  has  no  free  force  which  re- 
quires inductive  neutralization.  It  has  potential  energy 
in  the  form  of  compression  and  elasticity,  by  which  it 
strikes  a  blow  to  the  succeeding  corpuscular  quantity, 
and  in  doing  so  returns  to  normal,  or  subnormal.  In 
corpuscular  action  there  is  motion  and  counter  motion 
equivalency  as  regards  the  condensing  and  rarifying 
phases  (page  208).  Light  radiates  from  Alpha  Centauri 
to  the  solar  system  by  the  energy  of  the  initiatory  cor- 
puscles. 

So  far  we  have  considered  the  corpuscle  of  light  as 
being  propagated  through  a  field  of  equilibrated  ether. 
We  will  now  consider  it  as  passing  through  an  inter- 
molecular  and  polarized  field.  It  does  not  in  any  way 


262  ETHER  EXPERIMENTS. 

produce  motion  in  the  ponderable  molecules  of  the  trans- 
parent substance,  but  is  entirely  transmitted  by  the 
ether.  Light  is  propagated  in  relation  to  the  transpar- 
ent mass  independently  of  the  motion  of  the  mass.  If 
the  propagation  varies,  or  is  blocked,  it  is  because  of  the 
orientation  of  the  ether  fields,  their  degree  of  polariza- 
tion (density),  or  their  dimensions.  It  is  clear  that 
propagation  through  a  polarized  field  just  as  exclusively 
pertains  to  the  ether  as  propagation  through  interstellar 
ether,  only,  the  medium  itself  is  modified  by  the  poten- 
tials of  the  ponderable  molecules,  and  partakes  of  the 
motion  of  the  ponderable  mass. 


ETHER   EXPERIMENTS. 

It  is  evident  that  for  an  experiment  to  prove  a  proposi- 
tion that  all  the  factors  of  the  case  be  considered.  Sir 
Oliver  Lodge  proved  that  a  rapidly  revolving  wheel  did 
not  deflect  a  proximate  ray  of  light.  But  a  rotating 
wheel  is  not  analogous  to  the  rotating  earth,  in  as  much 
as  the  latter  radiates  lines  of  force  which  polarize  sur- 
rounding ether.  Michelson  and  Morley  concluded  from 
experiment  that  intermolecular  ether  is  not  stable  as 
regards  space,  but  partakes  of  the  earth's  motion — that 
ether  does  not  drift  through  the  pores  of  moving  ponder- 
able matter. 

Ether  is  imponderable  and  non-cohesive,  and  hence 
the  immense  interstellar  and  inter-planetary  ether  fields 
have  spacial  stability,  simply  obeying  the  requirements 
of  the  relation  of  all  matter  and  all  force  to  all  space. 
But  ether  is  polarized  by  the  forces  of  ponderable  mat- 
ter, and  when  polarized  it  acquires  additional  properties, 
and  one  of  its  acquired  properties  is  cohesiveness,  the 
acquired  property  varying  in  degree  according  to  the 


CHEMISTRY  AND  ETHER.  263 

intensity  of  the  force  transmitted.  Ether  in  interstellar 
space  offers  no  resistance  to  bodies  passing  through  it, 
and  ether  in  intermolecular  spaces,  being  imponderable, 
offers  no  resistance  to  its  being  moved  with  the  mass, 
and  on  the  other  hand  when  so  moving  it  does  not  add 
to  the  momentum  of  a  body.  When  polarized  and  cohe- 
sive ether  still  remains  imponderable.  A  moving  mass 
with  intense  force  will  intensely  polarize  surrounding 
ether,  and  conceivably,  if  there  is  no  resistance,  may 
carry  a  certain  portion  of  it  along.  When  there  is  the 
slightest  resistance  the  ether  will  remain  absolutely 
stable.  Between  stable  and  moving  fields  of  ether  there 
must  be  some  cohesion  and  hence  some  friction.  But  an 
ether  friction  does  not  produce  heat  as  no  ether  as  a 
result  becomes  unequilibrated. 

A  tube  exhausted  of  its  ponderable  matter  moving, 
with  an  indefinite  velocity,  will  carry  its  ether  content 
with  it,  as  the  ether  has  no  potentiality  to  overcome  the 
slightest  resistance  in  piercing  the  surrounding  material. 
Neither  has  the  ether  content  any  ponderability  to  give 
it  absolute  stability.  Ether  in  ponderable  vacua  behaves 
the  same  as  ether  in  intermolecular  spaces. 


CHEMICAL   ACTION   AND  ETHER. 

In  an  analytic  reaction,  such  as  (H2O)2— 02-|-  (H2)2, 
the  potentials  or  free  forces  of  the  molecules  are  in- 
creased, and  ether  as  heat  is  absorbed  by  increase  of 
induction  fields.  In  a  synthetic  reaction,  as  in  the  re- 
verse of  the  above  formulae,  neutralization  occurs,  the 
free  forces  are  decreased,  and  ether  as  heat  is  eliminated. 
A  synthetic  reaction  may  occur  without  the  radiation  of 
ether,  such  as  S2+(02)8=(S03)2.  In  this  reaction  no 
neutralization  takes  place  and  hence  no  heat  is  evolved. 


264  PHYSICAL  ACTION. 

A  carbon  atom  is  supposed  to  be  a  neutral  body,  and 
it  has  the  property  of  uniting  with  itself  to  a  relatively 
great  extent,  also  with  hydrogen  atoms  in  numerous 
proportions,  as  in  C5  H12.  Such  a  synthesis  neither  ab- 
sorbs nor  eliminates  ether  as  heat.  On  page  102  et  seq. 
chemical  synthesis  is  more  fully  considered. 

Molecules  of  gases  in  partial  vacua  progressively  break 
up  into  smaller  entities,  which  assume  the  molecular 
form,  with  increased  free  forces,  increased  induction 
fields,  and  increased  polarization  of  ether,  until  the  indi- 
visible cathode  particle  is  reached  under  a  definite  mini- 
mum pressure.  Thus  decrease  of  pressure  and  increase 
of  temperature  produce  the  same  result. 

Changes  in  the  physical  states  of  matter,  with  or 
without  chemical  action,  produce  changes  in  the  ether. 
Gases  being  transformed  towards  the  solid  state  elimi- 
nate ether  from  the  molecular  interspaces;  and  solids 
being  transformed  towards  the  gaseous  state  absorb 
ether.  Sulphur  and  oxygen  chemically  uniting  elimi- 
nate ether  by  oxygen  changing  its  physical  state  with 
increased  pressure  on  the  intermolecular  ether. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
Einstein. 

In  an  article  in  the  London  Times,  Dr.  Einstein  ex- 
presses himself  thus:  ".  .  .  the  new  theory  of  gravita- 
tion diverges  widely  from  that  of  Newton  with  respect 
to  its  basic  principle.  But  in  practical  application  the 
two  agree  so  closely  that  it  has  been  difficult  to  find  cases 
in  which  the  actual  differences  could  be  subjected  to 
observation.  As  yet  only  the  following  have  been  sug- 
gested : 

1.  The  distortion  of  oval  orbits  of  planets  round  the 
sun  (confirmed  in  the  case  of  the  planet  Mercury). 

2.  The  deviation  of  light  rays  in  a  gravitational  field 
(confirmed  by  the  English  Solar  Eclipse  Expedition). 

3.  The  shifting  of  spectral  lines  towards  the  red  end 
of  the  spectrum  in  the  case  of  light  coming  to  us  from 
stars  of  appreciable  mass  (not  yet  confirmed)." 


ORBITAL.  CHANGES. 

Slow  changes  are  taking  place  in  planetary  orbits, 
amongst  which  are  flattening  of  the  oval  form,  and  twist- 
ing around  the  sky  of  the  longest  diameter.  The  chief 
factors  in  causing  these  changes  will  be  considered.  The 
sun  is  enlarging  and  his  gravitational  forces  are  increas- 
ing, and  sequentially  the  matter  of  the  planets  is  get- 
ting more  positive,  the  negative  matter  being  eliminated 
by  thfe  squeeze  of  the  solar  gravitational  lines  of  force. 
Hence  when  a  planet  is  north  of  the  solar  equator  at- 
traction between  the  solar  and  planetary  bodies  is  in- 
creased, and  when  south  of  the  equatorial  plane  repul- 


266  TESTS. 

sion  will  be  decreased  (Fig.  14).  It  follows  that  changes 
are  continuously  occurring  in  planetary  orbits. 

As  regards  the  majority  of  the  planets,  various  extran- 
eous forces  may  influence  them  in  their  orbits,  but  in  the 
case  of  Mercury  the  changes  may  exclusively  depend 
upon  the  reactions  between  the  sun  and  the  planetary 
body.  Mercury  is  in  the  midst  of  an  extremely  intense 
field  of  solar  force  perhaps  reaching  the  maximum  of 
the  carrying  power  of  ether.  In  this  case  the  gravita- 
tional forces  of  other  planets  will  be  excluded  from  the 
field.  Mercury  is  an  extremely  positive  body  and  his 
orbit  must  be  distinctly  contracting.  Mercury  is  a  dead 
planet  relatively,  and  is  waiting  burial  by  falling  into 
the  sun.  All  the  planets  are  aging  by  becoming  more 
positive  in  their  constitution;  and  this  change  is  the 
chief  cause  of  the  modification  of  their  orbits.  The 
change  applies  particularly  to  Mercury.  (See  The  Planet 
Mercury.) 

Both  Newton  and  Einstein  overlooked  the  main  cause 
of  distortion  of  the  oval  form  of  planetary  orbits.  The 
first  test  of  Einstein's  theories  is  adverse  to  his  position. 


THE   SECOND   TEST   OP   EINSTEIN  *S   THEORIES. 
THE   REFRACTION    OP   LIGHT. 

Ether  is  the  medium  of  light  in  all  the  phases  of  its 
course,  and  ether  is  imponderable  but  polarizable.  The 
law  of  refraction  is  given  thus:  A  ray  of  light  moving 
in  an  homogeneous  medium  and  falling  on  the 
bounding  surface  of  another  homogeneous  medium 
may  be  refracted.  We  must  deal  with  the  state  of  the 
ether  in  the  two  media.  The  ether  is  polarized  in  the 
molecular  induction  fields,  but  in  different  degrees  and 
in  different  directions.  Hence  the  bending  of  the  ray. 


TESTS.  267 

Now  this  is  exactly  what  takes  place  when  the  ray  from 
a  star  behind  the  sun  is  seen  by  an  observer.  The  star 
light  passes  from  the  homogeneous  medium  of  ether  in 
interstellar  space  to  an  intensely  polarized  field  of  ether 
surrounding  the  sun,  and  is  bent  by  the  latter.  Hetero- 
geneity of  media  is  based  on  the  differential  polarization 
of  ether  fields  as  regards  intensity  and  direction.  The 
induction  field  in  the  case  of  the  sun  is  that  of  a  mass 
with  immense  radiating  forces,  and  in  the  case  of  trans- 
parent substances  the  induction  fields  are  those  of  molec- 
ular forces.  It  is  true  that  solar  gravitation  is  the  pri- 
mary force  of  polarization,  but  gravitation  absolutely 
exercises  no  pull  on  the  ray  of  light,  which  would  be 
necessary  as  a  proof  of  the  correctness  of  Einstein's 
theories. 


MODIFICATION  OP  THE  VELOCITY  OF  LIGHT. 

As  regards  this  test  it  is  apparent  that  in  principle  it 
rests  on  the  same  basis  as  the  second.  Deductions  from 
our  hypotheses  entirely  reject  the  ponderability  of  light 
rays  as  its  medium  is  imponderable  under  all  conditions. 
Einstein  postulates  that  gravitation  exercises  a  pull  on 
a  light  ray,  and  hence  a  ray  emanating  from  a  star  will 
be  retarded  by  the  gravitational  influence  of  the  astral 
body;  and  that  such  retardation  will  increase  the  wave 
length  and  thus  move  the  color  towards  the  red  end  of 
the  spectrum. 

Now  independently  of  the  ponderability  there  is  a 
question  raised  of  retardation  under  the  conditions 
named.  Surrounding  the  sun,  or  other  star,  the  medium 
is  intensely  polarized  and  its  conductivity  of  light  may 
be  diminished.  It  is  known  that  heat  conductivity,  in 


268  TESTS. 

iron  when  magnetized,  is  diminished  when  heat  radiates 
in  parallel  direction  with  the  magnetic  lines  of  force,  a 
condition  similar  to  light  passing  from  an  intensely 
gravitational  body.  But  color  neither  depends  on  re- 
tardation nor  decrease  of  conductivity,  but  upon  the 
quantity  of  ether,  or  the  quantity  of  force,  represented 
in  the  polarized  field  of  the  emitting  molecule  at  the 
source  of  the  light.  The  change  of  color,  as  in  the 
Doppler  principle,  occurs  at  the  molecular  source. 

There  are  two  radiating  forces  from  a  star,  occupying 
the  medium  ether  in  different  ways :  1.  Gravitational 
force  which  polarizes  the  ether.  2.  Light  which  alter- 
nately compresses  and  rarifies  the  ether.  Gravitation 
is  the  stronger  force.  Moreover  it  is  constant,  whereas 
light  is  intermittent  in  its  positive  phase  of  condensation. 

When  ether  is  polarized  it  may  be  fixed,  thereby  ac- 
quiring relative  stability,  and  cohesiveness.  Its  density 
of  material  and  intensity  of  force  conforms  to  the  intens- 
ity of  the  polarization,  and  thus  it  acquires  selective 
transmissibility  even  as  regards  the  same  field,  which 
diffuses  in  intensity  outwards. 

Another  consideration  presents:  A  color  corpuscle  at 
its  origin  has  a  specific  quantity  of  ether  matter  engaged, 
and  a  specific  quantity  of  energy.  Throughout  the 
course  of  a  ray  the  energy  of  its  color  is  changelessly 
maintained.  Even  the  dissociated  resultants  of  white 
light  must  have  an  aggregate  of  energy  equal  to  the 
white  light  corpuscle.  On  the  other  hand  an  intensely 
polarized  field  may  resist  corpusculation.  Such  a  field 
on  receiving  a  corpuscular  blow  on  its  proximate  sur- 
face transmits  the  same  to  the  distal  surface  by  one 
continuous  propagation,  and  without  intervening  cor- 
pusculation. This  is  similar  to  a  stick  being  struck  at 
one  end,  and  the  other  end  transmitting  the  blow  to 
surrounding  media.  The  stick  may  receive  a  dent  by 


SPECIAL  THEORY.  269 

the  initiatory  blow,  and  a  color  corpuscle  striking  a  po- 
larized field  may  dent  and  enter  the  field  selectively,  and 
the  blow  will  follow  a  line  of  the  same  density  of  mate- 
rial and  force  to  the  opposite  surface,  where  again  it 
will  be  propagated  by  corpusculation. 

The  conclusion  is  that  light  may  be  retarded  by  pre- 
occupied or  intensely  polarized  media,  but  that  no 
change  in  the  color  ensues,  and  no  pull  is  exercised  on 
the  ray  by  gravitation  however  intense  the  latter  may  be. 
It  is  further  concluded  that  on  leaving  the  initiatory 
molecular  sources  a  ray  of  light  is  independent  of  the 
forces  of  the  mass,  but  may  be  modified  by  the  state  of 
the  proximate  medium. 


SPECIAL  AND  GENERAL  THEORIES. 

Einstein  exemplifies  his  ideas  by  introducing  a  rail- 
road carriage  in  uniform  motion  and  definite  velocity 
in  reference  to  the  embankment,  and  a  man,  also  with 
definite  velocity,  walking  in  the  carriage  in  the  same  di- 
rection. What  is  the  velocity  of  the  man  in  reference 
to  the  embankment?  Answer:  The  velocity  w  of  the 
man  in  reference  to  the  carriage  added  to  the  velocity  v 
of  the  carriage  in  reference  to  the  embankment  equals 
the  velocity  W  of  the  man  in  reference  to  the  embank- 
ment. The  result  supports  Einstein's  conception  of 
relatively.  It  is  symbolized  thus :  W=v-\-w. 

Einstein  then  considers  the  law  of  the  propagation  of 
light  as  regards  the  principle  of  relativity.  Light  is 
propagated  in  "empty  space"  with  a  velocity  of  186,000 
miles  per  second.  He  refers  the  process  of  propagation 
to  a  rigid  reference  body  or  coordinate  system,  the  em- 
bankment. The  supposition  is  that  the  air  is  removed, 
and  that  the  light  is  then  being  propagated  in  vacua. 
The  railway  carriage  is  again  travelling  along  with  a 


270  SPECIAL  THEORY. 

known  velocity  in  the  same  direction  as  the  ray  of  light. 
The  ray  takes  the  place  of  the  man  in  the  previous 
example.  What  is  the  velocity  of  propagation  of  the  ray 
in  reference  to  the  carriage?  The  answer  is:  That  the 
velocity  c  of  light  relative  to  the  embankment  minus  the 
velocity  v  of  the  carriage  relative  to  the  embankment 
equals  the  velocity  w  of  light  relative  to  the  carriage. 
In  other  words  the  speed  of  light,  186,000  miles  per  sec- 
ond, is  decreased  relative  to  the  carriage  because  of  the 
motion  of  the  latter,  if  the  light  is  propagated  in  vacua. 
Conversely  and  symbollically  the  answer  is  expressed 
thus :  w=c — v. 

The  last  result  brings  Einstein  into  an  acknowledged 
delemna,  with  the  option  of  either  abandoning  his  prin- 
ciple of  relativity  or  the  law  of  propagation  of  light  in 
a  so-called  vacuum.  Let  us  see  if  we  can  help  him  out. 

We  have  postulated  that  owing  to  the  diffusibility  of 
matter  a  vacuum  is  an  impossibility.  Ether  matter  can- 
not be  excluded  from  any  space  not  occupied  by  complex 
matter.  Within  the  sphere  of  such  a  body  as  the  earth 
radiating  lines  of  force  cannot  be  excluded  from  any 
space.  The  terrestrial  lines  of  force  radiate  beyond  the 
moon's  orbit.  Hence  within  the  so-called  vacuum  (say 
a  ponderable  vacuum)  there  is  ether  matter,  permeated 
with  gravitational  lines  of  force,  which  polarize  the 
ether,  and  bestow  on  it  cohesive  qualities.  Moreover  the 
ether  within  a  ponderable  vacuum  is  in  equilibrium,  and 
has  no  potential  force  which  would  enable  it  to  radiate 
or  pass  beyond  its  local  bounds,  or  to  overcome  the 
slightest  resistance.  Furthermore  if  a  real  vacuum  were 
obtained  light  could  not  radiate  through  it.  It  follows 
that  the  carriage  in  the  above  example  carries  the  ether 
along  with  it.  Light  and  the  man  in  relation  to  the 
carriage  are  exactly  similar.  Hence  the  velocity  c  of 
light  relative  to  the  embankment,  plus  the  velocity  v  of 


GENERAL  THEORY.  271 

the  carriage  relative  to  the  embankment,  equals  the  ve- 
locity w  of  light  relative  to  the  carriage;  or  as  symbol- 
ized, thus:  w=c-\-v. 

It  is  clear  that  there  is  no  need  of  a  special  theory 
to  sustain  relativity  of  motion.  Moreover  special  theories 
indicate  weakness,  and  absence  of  fundamentality. 

Some  of  the  ideas  of  others,  which  Einstein  quotes  as 
lending  support  to  his  theories,  are  untenable,  such  as, 
that  the  binding  force  of  the  element  of  the  cathode  rays 
is  its  motion — "that  the  particles  constituting  the  elec- 
tron experience  a  contraction  in  the  direction  of  motion, 
in  consequence  of  that  motion. ' '  The  amount  of  the  con- 
traction has  been  expressed  mathematically.  Now  the 
distance  between  the  particles  of  the  rays  increase  with 
diffusion,  or  distance  travelled.  Why  does  this  not 
apply  to  the  constituents  of  a  cathode  particle?  We 
have  here  a  special  hypothesis  untenable.  Elsewhere  we 
have  explained  the  binding  force  of  the  cathode  particle. 

Einstein  is  reported  as  expressing  his  opinion  that  his 
general  theory  of  relativity  can  only  solve  the  problems 
of  space  and  matter  by  regarding  the  universe  as  spa- 
tially finite,  and  closed.  We  find  by  deduction  that 
matter  under  its  aggregate  properties  is  diffusive,  and 
hence  a  spatially  finite  universe,  bounded  by  outside 
emptiness,  would  have  to  be  closed  by  a  wall  of  indefus- 
ably  adamantine  material  of  special  creation. 

As  regards  his  general  theory  of  relativity  Einstein 
postulates  that  reference  bodies  or  systems  of  coordinates 
should  not  be  limited  as  regards  their  state  of  motion. 
He  finds  that  the  application  of  his  general  theory  of 
relativity  is  in  conflict  with  the  idea  that  inertia  and 
weight  depend  on  the  same  constants — identity  of  inert 
and  heavy  masses.  He  considers  a  case  of  a  system  of 
coordinates  in  stable  rotation  relative  to  a  system  of 
inertia  in  the  Newtonian  sense.  Einstein  states  that: 


272  GENERAL  THEORY. 

"The  forces  which,  relatively  to  this  system,  are  cen- 
trifugal, must,  in  the  Newtonian  sense,  be  attributed  to 
inertia. ' '  He  makes  the  sweeping  statement  that  ' '  these 
centrifugal  forces  are,  like  gravitation,  proportional  to 
the  mass  of  the  bodies."  This  is  Einstein's  second  di- 
lemna,  and  he  considers  a  way  out  which  classical  me- 
chanics and  Euclidean  geometry  contradict. 

Let  us  see  how  the  matter  stands  as  viewed  from  the 
standpoint  of  fundamental  hypotheses.  Weight  and 
inertia  are  identical  as  they  depend  fundamentally  on 
attraction  between  positive  forces.  The  description  of 
the  case  considered  fits  the  relative  conditions  of  the  sun 
and  earth,  but  here  the  main  centrifugal  force  cannot 
be  attributed  to  inertia,  or  attraction  between  positive 
forces,  but  to  repulsion  between  negative  forces.  How- 
ever, the  centripetal  and  centrifugal  forces  in  a  plane- 
tary orbit  must  be  effectively  equal,  otherwise  the  con- 
stancy of  the  orbital  path  would  not  be  maintained. 
Hence  it  may  be  argued  that  the  centripetal  forces  being 
equal  to  the  weight,  and  hence  to  the  inertia,  it  must 
follow  that  the  centrifugal  forces  are  equal  to  the  inertia. 
Newton,  Einstein,  and  others  overlooked  the  funda- 
mental principle  of  centrifugal  action  being  repulsion 
between  negatives. 

We  must  bear  in  mind  that  at  each  orbital  node  the 
planetary  body  enters  a  field  of  force  different  from  the 
preceding  field  of  travel,  and  the  forces  of  the  new  field 
begin  to  manifest  either  at  perihelion  or  aphelion  (Fig. 
14).  The  forces  of  one  field  contract,  and  the  forces  of 
the  other  dilate  the  orbit.  The  earth  as  regards  relative 
forces  is  in  equilibrium  in  its  orbit,  or  seeking  equili- 
brium. It  seeks  equilibrium  by  orbital  contraction  and 
gains  it  at  perihelion;  and  seeks  equilibrium  by  orbital 
dilation  and  gains  it  at  aphelion.  It  follows  that  inde- 
pendently of  the  equipotentiality  of  the  forces  of  the 


RELATIVITY.  273 

two  spheres  they  must  be  equally  effective,  as  dilation 
and  contraction  are  equal.  The  sun,  however,  is  a  posi- 
tive body  and  his  lineal  gravitational  force  between  posi- 
tives is  greater  than  his  lineal  repulsive  force  between 
negatives.  But  as  to  the  three  fundamental  laws  gravi- 
tation is  in  the  minority,  and  the  earth  is  in  equilibrium 
as  regards  the  forces  of  the  universe  and  as  regards 
those  of  the  solar  system.  Hence  there  are  other  factors 
related  to  the  case  (see  The  Planet  Mercury).  It  must 
be  considered  that  the  crossings  of  the  equatorial  plane 
of  the  sun  is  accomplished  by  electric  current  forces, 
and  that  centripetal  and  centrifugal  forces  are  strictly 
linear. 

The  centripetal,  centrifugal,  and  circular  movements 
take  place  within  the  induction  field  of  the  sun,  and  the 
primary  forces  must  exist  within  the  solar  mass,  which 
is  the  reference  body  to  these  movements.  The  situation 
demands  a  positive  solar  mass,  with  a  positive  and  a 
negative  electrolytic  pole,  and  a  central  electric  current 
of  definite  direction.  Preceding  and  succeeding  relativ- 
ities and  equivalencies  alternately  exist  in  centripetal 
and  centrifugal  forces  of  planetary  orbits.  But  where 
is  the  simultaneous  relative  equivalency?  With  an  im- 
perfect knowledge  of  facts  we  answer  thus :  The  planets 
are  never  simultaneously  all  north  of  the  equatorial 
plane  of  the  sun,  nor  all  south  of  it,  and  hence  some  of 
them  are  under  centrifugal  forces  and  some  under  cen- 
tripetal. Neither  are  they  all  simultaneously  in  similar 
orientation  as  regards  the  sun,  some  of  them  being  on 
the  same  side  of  the  sun  as  the  earth  happens  to  be,  and 
others  on  the  opposite  side.  This  indicates  a  planetary 
spatial  equilibrium,  and  points  to  a  simultaneous  rela- 
tivity of  dilating  or  contracting  force  of  any  one  planet. 

It  is  evident  that  relativity  can  be  explained  without 
rupturing  the  principles  of  Euclid.  It  seems  that  Ein- 


274  CONCLUSIONS. 

stein  has  attempted  to  solve  a  problem  which,  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  accepted  principles  of  physical  science, 
is  insolvable.  He  had  no  fundamental  hypotheses  to 
tie  to. 

Conclusions. 

Deductions  from  the  hypotheses  confirm  the  principle 
of  Newton's  law  of  gravitation  as  being  one  of  the  most 
important  factors  in  the  production  of  phenomena  within 
the  solar  system.  Its  effectiveness  is  enhanced  by  the 
advantageously  relative  position  assumed  by  positive  as 
regards  negative  matter.  On  the  other  hand,  its  direct 
application  is  curtailed  to  one  half  of  the  matter  of  the 
universe ;  and  it  is  further  curtailed  to  the  limits  of  each 
neutralization  field,  the  maximum  dimensions  of  which  is 
a  solar  system.  Furthermore  it  is  a  minority  law,  and 
its  effectiveness  depends  upon  the  minimum  pressure  in- 
duced by  the  relation  of  all  matter  and  all  force  to  all 
space.  It  is  entirely  eliminated  from  interstellar  space. 

The  basic  principle  of  Newton's  law  of  gravitation  is 
attraction  between  positives.  The  basic  principle  of 
chemical  affinity,  of  the  magnetic  law  of  "unlikes  at- 
tract," of  "induction  fields,"  of  the  diffusion  of  positive 
matter  (exemplified  in  hydrogen  gas),  and  of  the  forma- 
tion of  ether  molecules,  is  the  strain  to  neutralize  on 
the  part  of  positive  and  negative  matter  at  minimum  dis- 
tance and  by  maximum  contact.  The  diffusion  of  nega- 
tive matter  and  its  circumferential  placement,  and  the 
greater  diffusibility  of  negative  electricity  relative  to 
positive,  rest  on  the  fundamental  principle  of  repulsion 
between  negative  units. 

The  works  of  such  men  as  Faraday,  Ampere,  Maxwell, 
Joule,  Helmholtz,  J.  J.  Thomson,  Lord  Kelvin,  Roent- 
gen, etc.,  essentially  precede  the  formulation  of  funda- 
mental hypotheses. 


FINAL  COMMENTARY.  275 

The  principles  of  Relativity  and  Equivalence  are  ap- 
plicable to  the  motions,  or  kinetic  forces,  of  the  universe, 
according  to  our  deductions  from  the  fundamental  hypo- 
theses. We  have  formulated  the  following  law :  Every 
motion  has  a  relativity  and  an  equivalency  in  simultan- 
eous (inductive),  in  preceding,  and  in  sequential  motion. 
But  this  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  elaborating  the 
concept  of  the  Conservation  of  Energy  advanced  by 
many  physicists ;  or  the  conception  of  a  constant  kinetic 
energy  as  assuming  a  perpetual  motion  within  each 
Cosmic  Unit,  as  expressed  in  this  work  (pages  11,  18, 
54,  61). 

As  regards  Einstein.  He  has  ably  and  persistently 
labored  to  bring  into  harmonious  relationship  scientific 
conceptions  and  experienced  facts.  But  what  if  scien- 
tific conceptions  are  largely  untenable:  Then  he  under 
takes  an  impossible  task.  Can  Einstein  explain  the  rela- 
tivity and  equivalence  of  the  orbital  motions  of  the 
planets,  including  the  observed  rotation  of  the  sun,  by 
means  of  the  accepted  scientific  conceptions  of  the  solar 
system?  Why  is  Neptune  an  exception  to  the  rule  of 
the  planets'  axial  rotations  having  similar  directions 
(page  51)  ?  Scientific  conceptions  have  no  answer  for 
these  and  for  many  more  problems. 


A  FINAL  COMMENTARY. 

Over  twenty  years  ago  the  author  on  lecturing  on 
electro-therapeutics  formulated  a  theory  as  to  the  nature 
of  electricity,  and  on  the  basis  of  this  concept  he  found 
that  he  could  explain  the  relative  facts.  Sequentially  he 
extended  the  theory  to  chemistry  and  physics.  More 
recently  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of  astronomy, 
and  found  it  feasible  to  explain  astronomical  facts  by 


276  FINAL  COMMENTARY. 

means  of  what  he  now  considered  fundamental  hypo- 
theses, which  are  simply  modifications  of  the  original 
theoretical  formulae.  Throughout  these  years  he  has 
assiduously  applied  himself,  with  sacrifices  in  various 
directions,  to  the  development  of  the  hypotheses,  and 
has  found  all  facts  and  phenomena  brought  under  con- 
sideration to  be  conformable  with  the  deductions  there- 
from. 

The  author  is  aware  that  his  conclusions  are  at  vari- 
ance, on  many  subjects,  with  prevailing  scientific  opin- 
ion, but  has  confidence  that  there  are  scientists  who  will 
examine  his  work  without  prejudice.  If  the  principles 
as  formulated  are  scientifically  untenable  then  his  efforts 
absolutely  fail.  On  the  other  hand  if  they  underlie  the 
physical  facts  of  the  universe  then  it  specially  behooves 
scientific  teaching  bodies  to  adopt  them.  The  author  is 
convinced  that  on  the  basis  of  the  hypotheses  as  formu- 
lated (pages  8  and  213)  a  generalization  of  all  facts  can 
be  effected.  He  clearly  appreciates  that  his  deductive 
reasoning  may  err,  but  the  human  characteristic  thus 
indicated  in  no  way  invalidates  the  claim  that  the  hypo- 
theses are  universally  fundamental. 

Relative  to  the  subject  it  may  be  pointed  out  that 
numerous  facts  are  unexplainable  by  present  day  scien- 
tific research,  or  if  explanations  are  attempted  a  number 
of  theories  are  offered  to  account  for  a  single  phenom- 
enon; whereas  in  this  work  a  single  theory  is  laid  down 
to  account  for  all  phenomena. 

We  may  compare  the  indefinite  character  of  the  ether 
as  presented  in  scientific  works  with  the  distinct  and 
absolutely  defined  character  of  this  form  of  matter  as 
formulated  in  this  work. 

We  may  note  the  numerous  uncertainties  in  accounting 
for  the  evolution  of  solar  systems  as  portrayed  in  the 


FINAL,  COMMENTARY.  277 

text  books  of  today,  and  make  comparison  with  the  per- 
petual cyclic  evolvement,  based  upon  the  relation  of  the 
intrinsic  forces  of  each  solar  system,  as  herein  denned. 

Science  has  been  unable  to  explain  satisfactorily  the 
causal  factors  in  the  exclusive  fitness  of  the  earth  as  a 
planet  for  the  habitation  of  man.  These,  and  an  indefi- 
nite number  of  other  problems,  can  only  be  solved  by 
referring  them  to  principles  of  universal  application. 

In  his  publications  the  author  has  described  the  polar 
energies  of  the  earth  as  building  up  the  south  pole,  and 
hollowing  out  the  north.  Polar  explorers  have  verified 
his  deductions  by  finding  a  mountain  at  the  south,  and  a 
sea  at  the  north  pole.  He  is  convinced  that  the  force 
which  drives  the  earth  in  its  orbit  can  be  tapped,  and 
brought  under  the  dominion  of  man  for  practical  pur- 
poses (page  85). 

During  the  last  decade  science  has  taken  wonderful 
strides  in  the  uncovering  of  facts  and  the  application 
of  principles,  but  it  has  made  no  advancement  in  the 
direction  of  a  grand  generalization  of  facts  and  prin- 
ciples. The  innumerable  theories  must  be  replaced  by 
deductions  from  principles  which  are  fundamental.  We 
are  firmly  convinced  that  we  offer  formulae  of  such 
principles. 

A  word  of  warning:  Critics  should  not  view  this 
work  from  the  standpoint  of  concepts  adopted  by  physi- 
cal science,  but  from  the  standpoint  as  to  whether  or  no 
the  facts  of  the  universe  support  the  hypotheses. 


1403  Hyde  street, 

San  Francisco,  California,  U.  S.  A. 

September  1,  1921. 


CONTENTS  OF  ADDENDA 

Chapter  Page 

XV.      Fundamental      Hypotheses      and      Immediate 

Deductions 213 

Definition  of  Terms 21  3 

Laws  of  Primary  Forces 214 

Further  Deductions 215 

Matter,  Space  and  Time.   Astral  Motion 216 

The  Law  of  Gravitation 219 

The  Great  Cycle 219 

XVI.      Mars.    Water  of,  Satellites  of 222 

The  Moon  and  Its  Atmosphere.    Corona 223 

The  Planet  Mercury — Constitution,  Poles,  and 

Orbit 224 

Meteors  227 

XVII.      Radiant  Energy,  Anode,  Cathode,  and  Roent- 
gen Rays . 229 

Vibratory    Motion.     Radium.     Origin    of    Its 

Energy    233 

Uranium  X,  Thorium  X.    Equilibrium 238 

Aurorae  Polares 239 

XVIII.      White  Light.   Spectroscopic  Analyses 241 

Reflexion  of  Light 243 

The  Doppler  Principle 243 

Absorbtion  of  Light  by  Gases 244 

Light  and  Its  Source.    Independent  Velocity....  244 

Velocity  of  Radiations.    Light  and  Heat 245 

Limitation  of  Ether  as  a  Medium 246 

Corpuscular  Limitations , 247 

XIX.      Electrons.     Electric  Conduction 249 

Diffusion,    Boyle's    Law,    Kinetic   Theory    of 

Gases   25 1 

Electro  Magnetic  Theory  of  Light 253 

Polarization  of  Light.   Dimensional  Orientation  255 

Magnetism  256 

XX.      Gravitation  and  Light.    Relative  Velocities 257 

Absolute  and  Relative  Motion 257 

Ether    Experiments.     Lodge.     Michelson   and 

Morley    262 

Chemical  Action  and  Ether 263 

XXI.      Einstein.   Tests  of  His  Theories 265 

Conclusions   274 

Final  Commentary 275 


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